
13 



THE 



BIBLE CLASS ASSISTANT, I 




SCRIPTURAL GUIDE 




SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 



BY 

THOM21S B. THAYER, 

PASTOR OF THE FIR^T UNIVERSALIS'! 1 SOCIETV IX 
LOWELL. MASS. 



I 

THOMAS WHITTEMORE. w|l 

37 CORXHILL. IpJSl^ij 



BOSTON 



1840. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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BIBLE CLASS ASSISTANT, 

OR r 

SCRIPTURAL GUIDE FOR SUNDAY SCHOOLS: 

BEING 

SKETCHES OF THE ANTIQUITIES, CUSTOMS, AND 
MANNERS OF THE JEWS, 

IN ILLUSTRATION OF SCRIPTURE. 

DESIGNED FOR 

THE USE OF TEACHERS, BIBLE CLASSES, AND THE 
HIGHER CLASSES IN SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 



Br THOMAS B. THAYER. 



BOSTON: 



THOMAS WHITTEMORE. 
1840. 



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V «•** ■* 



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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840, by 
Thomas Whit tem ore, in the Clerk's Office of the 
District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



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CAMBRIDGE : 

STEREOTYPED BY 

FOLSOM, WELLS, AJND THURSTON. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER. PAGE. 


I. 


Books and Authors of the Old Testament. 






— Historical Books .... 


1 


n. 


Books and Authors of the Old Testament : 
Continued. — Poetical and Prophetical 






Books ....... 


9 


in. 


Books of the New Testament, and then- 






Authors. — Historical .... 


18 


IV. 


Paul and his Epistles .... 


28 


v. 


The Catholic Epistles and their Authors . 


36 


VI. 


Description of Palestine .... 


43 


VII. 


Agriculture, &c, of the Jews 


52 


VIII. 


Dwellings and Domestic Affairs 


63 


IX. 


Meals and Entertainments 


70 


X. 


Dress, &c 


78 


XI. 


Forms of Salutation. — Hospitality 


86 


XII. 


Marriage Customs 


94 


XIII. 


The Condition of Children and Slaves . 


104 


XIV. 


Funeral Customs. — Tombs 


110 


XV. 


The Temple 


116 


XVI. 


Sacred Persons of the Temple 


125 



\ 



iv CONTENTS. 

XVII. The Synagogue, — its Services, Officers, 

Powers, &c 132 

XVIII. Hebrew Poetry 140 

XIX. Music, Musical Instruments. — Writing, and 

Writing Materials .... 149 
XX. Modes of reckoning and dividing Time 156 
XXI. Jewish and Roman Judicature. — Areopa- 
gus 164 

XXII. Punishments mentioned in Scripture . 172 



THE 

BIBLE CLASS ASSISTANT. 



CHAPTER I. 

Books and Authors of the Old Testament. — 
Historical Books. 

1. Moses j according to the scriptural account, 
was raised up by God as a deliverer for his people, 
who were bond-slaves in Egypt. In consequence 
of a singular providence, he was adopted by Pha- 
raoh's daughter, and brought up and educated in 
the palace, and instructed "in all the wisdom of 
the Egyptians." God appeared to Moses after he 
had been at the court of Egypt about 40 years, 
and announced to him his mission, giving him the 
power to work miracles, in proof of the divine 
authority thereof. He proceeded to his work, 
which he faithfully performed, after toiling and 
suffering some 40 years in the wilderness be- 
tween Egypt and Canaan. Though Moses was 
not permitted to enter the Promised Land, he had 
a view of it from Pisgah, a neighboring moun- 
tain. He died at the age of 120, cc and his eye was 
not dim, nor his natural strength abated." Deut. 
xxxiv.7. He was remarkable for his benevolence, 
patience, and meekness, — though, like all mortals, 
he sometimes erred. The history of Moses be- 
1* 



2 HISTORICAL, BOOKS 

came famous among all nations, — and the Orien- 
tals, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, all bor- 
rowed from it, in the accounts of their gods and 
heroes. 

2. The Books of Moses. The first five books 
of the Old Testament are called the Pentateuch, 
from a Greek word, signifying Jive instruments, or 
volumes ; and the Books of Moses, because written 
by him. The first is called Genesis, which signi- 
fies creation, because it gives an account of the 
creation of the earth, man, &c. It embraces a 
period of 2369 years, from the creation of the 
world to the death of Joseph, and contains the 
most wonderful history that has ever been given 
to the human race. The most important event, 
beside the creation, of which record is made, is 
the Deluge. The second book is called Exodus, 
which means Departure, because it gives an ac- 
count of the departure of the Israelites from 
Egypt. It is the history of 145 years, and brings 
the record down to A. M. 2514. The most re- 
markable events noted, are the oppression of the 
Israelites, — the raising up of Moses, — the plagues 
of Egypt, — the deliverance of Israel, — the pas- 
sage of the Red Sea, — and the giving of the Law 
on Mount Sinai. The third book is called Le- 
viticus, because it treats principally of the laws 
and institutions of the Levites, and priests gen- 
erally. The transactions seem to have been in- 
cluded within the space of eight, or at most thirty 
days. The most important particulars, are the 



OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 3 

institution of the three great national festivals, the 
Pass-over, Pentecost, and Tabernacles, Numbers 
is the name of the fourth book, — so called from 
the numbering of the Israelites. The first took 
place soon after their departure from Egypt, 
chap. i. The second was 38 years after, in the 
plains of Moab. Chap, xxvi. The book com- 
prises the history of 38 years. The fifth book, 
and last of the Pentateuch, is called Deuteron- 
omy, signifying a second law, or a repetition of the 
law. It is a sort of summary of the mercies of 
God to the Israelites, and a repetition of the obli- 
gations of the law. The first eight verses of the 
last chapter are supposed to have been added by 
Joshua, and the last four by Samuel or Ezra. It 
embraces a period of two months, and brings the 
Sacred History to A. M. 2552. 

3. Joshua. This book is supposed to have been 
written by Joshua, except a few verses of the last 
chapter. It contains an account of the entrance of 
the Israelites into the Promised Land, the events 
which followed, and of the administration of 
Joshua, to his death. It occupies a space of about 
30 years. Joshua was distinguished for his piety, 
his courage, and warlike talents. Judges. This 
book is a history of the Israelites for 317 years, 
from the death of Joshua to the death of Sam- 
son, during which period they were governed by 
Judges. Hence the name of the book, which gives 
account of their doings. The book of Ruth, is 
only a sketch of the fortunes of the person whose 



4 HISTORICAL BOOKS 

name it bears. The events recorded took place 
in the time of the Judges. David was a descend- 
ant of Ruth, being a great-grandson. 

4. The two books of Samuel, and the two of 
Kings, were formerly called the First, Second, 
Third, and Fourth Books of Kings. In ancient 
times, however, the two books of Samuel were 
united in one, as were also the two books of 
Kings ; and there seems no good reason why they 
should have been separated. They make, togeth- 
er, a continued history of the Jews to the Baby- 
lonish captivity, beginning where the book of 
Judges ends, and giving an account of the election 
and reign of Saul, and of all the kings of Israel 
and Judah. The First Book of Samuel contains 
an account of the rule of Eli and Samuel, the 
reign of Saul, his overthrow and death, and the 
anointing of David. It embraces a period of 
about 80 years. The Second of Samuel occupies 
about 40 years, and gives the history of David's 
elevation to the throne, — the happy commence- 
ment of his reign. Chap. i. - x. ; his unhappy fall, 
and its wretched consequences. Chap. xi. - 
xviii. ; and his restoration to divine favor, and to 
his throne. Chap. xix. -xxiv. The First Book 
of Kings, occupying a space of 119 years, contains 
an account of David's death ; the reign of Solo- 
mon, his power, wealth, glory, and death ; the 
building of the temple, and the division of the 
tribes into the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah. 
The Second Book of Kings contains the history of 



OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. O 

308 years. It gives account of the profligacy and 
idolatry of the people, the confusion and final de- 
struction of the kingdom of Israel by the king of 
Assyria, and the captivity of the people. It also 
records the downfall of the kingdom of Judah, the 
destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and 
the carrying almost the whole nation into captivity 
at Babylon, where they continued for 70 years. 
The historical period embraced by these four 
books, is 547 years, extending from a. m. 2869 
to a. m. 3416. The author is uncertain. 

5. The two Books of Chronicles, which were 
comprised in one book by the Jews, are, in some 
measure, a summary of Sacred History. The 
First Book gives a circumstantial account of the 
twelve tribes, and traces the genealogies back to 
Adam. It also contains the history of Saul and 
David, and the preparations for the building of the 
temple. The Second contains the history of Solo- 
mon's inauguration and reign, the building and 
dedication of the Temple, the rebellion of the ten 
tribes, and the history of the kingdom of Judah 
from its commencement to its overthrow by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. These books comprise a period of 
3468 years. The books of Samuel, Kings, and 
Chronicles, relate the same histories, and they 
should, in reading, be constantly collated or com- 
pared together. The author of the Chronicles is 
unknown. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah 
were anciently reckoned, by the Jews, as one vol- 
ume. They were written by the persons whose 



6 HISTORICAL BOOKS 

names they bear. The book of Ezra contains the 
history of the return of the Jews from the Baby- 
lonish captivity under Zerubbabel (chap. i. -vi.), 
and an account of the great reformation which 
Ezra brought about among the people, vii. - x. 
The book of Nehemiah contains an account of the 
building of the walls of Jerusalem under Nehe- 
miah, who superintended the work by permission 
of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, in whose favor he 
stood high. It also narrates the reformation 
wrought by him in the religion, morals, and man- 
ners, of the Jews. Nehemiah governed about 
36 years, distinguished alike for his piety and 
the uprightness of his administration. The book 
of Esther is a narrative of the person whose 
name it bears, the events of which come in 
somewhere, in point of date, between the sixth 
and seventh chapters of Ezra. It records the ele- 
vation of Esther, a Jewish captive, to the throne 
of Persia, and the deliverance, through her agen- 
cy, of the Jews from the destruction prepared 
for them by Haman. These last named books 
bring down the Sacred History of the world to 
a. m. 3584, b. c. 420 ; and with them ends the 
general History of the Old Testament. 



Questions on Chapter I. 

[The figures refer to the corresponding paragraphs in the text.] 

1. 2. For what purpose was Moses raised up ? By 
whom was he adopted, and where educated ? How long 
had he been at the court of Pharaoh when God called 



OF THE OED TESTAMENT. 7 

him ? What is said of his performance of the work as- 
signed him? Did he enter the Promised Land? Why 
not? (Numbers xx. 10-12. xxvii. 12-14.) At what age 
did he die, — and what is said of him at this time ? For 
what was he remarkable ? What is said of the history of 
Moses, touching other nations? What are the first five 
books of the Old Testament called ? and why ? Name 
them. What is the meaning of Genesis? What number 
of years does it give record of? What is the meaning of 
Exodus j — and why is the second book so called ? What 
period does it embrace ? What are some of the principal 
events? Why is the next book called Leviticus? What 
are the most important particulars noted in it ? What is 
the name of the fourth book, — and why ? When did 
these numbe rings take place ? How many years' history 
does it record ? What is the meaning of Deuteronomy ? 
What is the substance of this book ? What is said of the 
last chapter ? Why do you think so ? How far is the 
history of the world brought by the Pentateuch ? 

3. 4. What is said of the book of Joshua? For what 
was Joshua distinguished ? Of what does the book of 
Judges give an account ? Why is it so called ? What is 
said of the book of Ruth ? What celebrated personage 
was a descendant of Ruth ? How nearly allied ? What 
is said of the books of Samuel and Kings ? In more an- 
cient times, how were they united ? What is the history 
which they contain ? The first book of Samuel contains 
a history of what ? Of how long a period ? The second 
book gives account of what? What is the history given 
in the first book of Kings ? In the second book ? What 
period is embraced in the history given in those four 
books ? To what year of the world do they bring the 'his- 
tory ? What of the author ? 

5. What is said of the two books of Chronicles ? Of 



8 HISTORICAL BOOKS. 

what does the first book give an account? What are the 
principal events related in the second book ? What num- 
ber of years are represented in those books? What is said 
of the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles ? Who 
was the author of Chronicles ? What is said of Ezra and 
Nehemiah ? What does the book of Ezra contain ? What 
history is contained in the book of Nehemiah ? How long 
did Nehemiah govern? For what was he distinguished? 
What is said of the book of Esther ? What are its con- 
tents? Who was Haman? To what period do these 
books bring down the Sacred History of the World ? 
What further is said of them ? 



POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 



CHAPTER II. 

Books and Authors of the Old Testament : Contin- 
ued, — Poetical and Prophetical Books. 

1. Poetical Books. The Poetical Books are five 
in number, — Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesias- 
tes, and Canticles, or the Song of Solomon. 
The book of Job is regarded as one of the oldest 
pieces of composition extant. There is much di- 
vision upon the question, whether Job was, or was 
not, a real personage,— whether the book is a nar- 
rative of actual events, or a drama, constructed 
with a view to set forth the excellency and value 
of virtue. The last seems to be the most proba- 
ble. The author of the poem or drama, after the 
Eastern manner, seeks to convey instruction under 
the guise of fiction, a method sanctioned by the 
parables of our Lord. Accordingly he introduces 
Job as the hero, so to speak, of his poem, — he 
represents him as wealthy, prosperous, and happy, 
in every respect, — as a just, upright, and virtuous 
man, beloved of God, and honored of his fellows. 
Suddenly a change comes over him, — his riches 
are taken from him ; his flocks and herds are sto- 
len, his houses destroyed, his children dead, — and 
himself afflicted with the most grievous and pain- 
ful diseases 5 of which evils, a fictitious personage. 



10 POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 

called Satan, is represented as the author. Yet, 
through all these trials and sufferings, he maintains 
his integrity and confidence in God. At last anoth- 
er change takes place ; he is restored to his former 
prosperity, and even greater, the reward of virtue 
and faith is given him, and all things work togeth- 
er for good. Such is the history of the hero of this 
drama, and the design of the author seems clearly 
to be this, — to show, that all things are under the 
direction of God, — that though he subjects us to 
sufferings, it is only that our faith may be tried, 
and our virtue proved and strengthened, — and 
having shown this, to inspire confidence in God, 
and trust in his promise, that virtue shall ever, in 
the end, be triumphant. 

2. The Book of Psalms is called, in the Hebrew, 
the Book of Hymns or Praises. A large portion 
of these were composed by David, who, from the 
fervent devotion and earnest piety of these sacred 
songs, has been justly styled, " The Sweet Singer of 
Israel." Many of them were probably composed 
by Solomon, who is said (1 Kings iv. 32.) to have 
written iC a thousand and five songs. 51 The rest 
were written by different persons, whose names 
have not been preserved with any certainty. Da- 
vid was probably the first person who introduced 
the singing of the Psalms, accompanied with mu- 
sic, into the temple service ; and many of them 
seem to have been written expressly for this pur- 
pose. They were collected, in their present form, 
long after the time of David ; probably by Ezra. 



POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 11 

Our limits will not permit us to set forth the divis- 
ions of the Psalms ; the author, character, occasion, 
and circumstances of writing each. This must be 
sought in larger works. The Proverbs have al- 
ways been ascribed to Solomon, and were probably 
mostly spoken by him, — for he is said to have ut- 
tered " three thousand." 1 Kings iv. 32. It is one 
of the most valuable and instructive books of the 
sacred canon, containing most important maxims 
for every age and condition of life, — a time-proof 
storehouse of wisdom, observation, and experience, 
to which all may go and be instructed, — the ruler 
and the subject, — the master and the servant, — 
the wise and simple, — the virtuous and vicious, — 
the rich and poor, — husbands and wives, — pa- 
rents and children. The Book of Ecclesiastes, 
which signifies The Preacher, is also by Solomon, 
and was probably written toward the close of his 
life, after he had fallen into the sin of idolatry. Its 
object is to show the vanity of all earthly pleasures, 
and to draw men from the pursuit of them, to the 
service of God, which alone giveth abiding peace. 
Let us carefully consider, and give heed to the 
conclusion of the whole matter. Chap. xii. 13, 14. 
The authorship of the Song of Solomon, is seen in 
its title. It is a poem, or, perhaps, an allegory, 
the character and objects of which are not known. 
3. The Prophetical Books. The prophetical 
books are sixteen in number (Lamentations being 
included in Jeremiah), and are generally divided 
into two classes, — the Greater Prophets, compris- 



12 POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 

ing Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; and 
the Minor Prophets, embracing all the rest. The 
terms, Greater and Minor, have no reference to 
the time or dignity of the prophets so named, but 
only to the size of their respective books. It may 
also be observed, that the arrangement in our 
common version is not according to the chronology 
of the persons or books, but is entirely arbitrary. 

4. The Greater Prophets. Isaiahis supposed 
to have entered upon the prophetic office b. c. 758, 
and to have continued at least 48 years in the 
discharge of its duties. His principal prophecies 
are those respecting the Messiah, which have 
given him the name of the " Evangelical Proph- 
et, 35 — those respecting the captivity of the Jews, 
at Babylon, — those against the kingdoms of Israel 
and Syria, — and those against Babylon, Egypt, 
the Philistines, Moabites, &c. Isaiah is distin- 
guished for the boldness and loftiness of his image- 
ry, and for the general beauty, grandeur, and sub- 
limity of his style. In his prophecies, are found 
some of the finest conceptions and figures, and 
some of the most finished specimens of poetical 
composition, that are to be met with in any known 
language, ancient or modern. Jeremiah was called 
to the duties of a prophet at the early age of 14, 
b. c. 629 ; and continued in the performance there- 
of about 40 years. He was a man of great benev- 
olence and goodness of heart, of unwavering in- 
tegrity, and a fervent lover of his country. In the 
discharge of his prophetical duties, he met with all 



POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 13 

manner of ill-usage, being persecuted, imprisoned, 
and finally, as is supposed, stoned to death by his 
countrymen in Egypt. His prophecies are princi- 
pally directed against the Jews, denouncing the 
terrible judgments of God upon their continued 
transgressions and iniquities, and fixing the period 
of their captivity in Babylon at 70 years. But 
they also foretell the conquest of the Philistines, 
of the Edomites, and of the kingdom of Egypt, by 
the celebrated Nebuchadnezzar. The last chapter 
of Jeremiah was added after his time, probably by 
Ezra, and contains an account of the fulfilment of 
Jeremiah's prophecy, touching the destruction of 
Jerusalem and the temple, and the captivity of the 
Jews at Babylon. The Lamentations, by Jere- 
miah, were originally annexed to his prophecies, 
making one volume. The book is what its name 
purports, Lamentations over the downfall of the 
prophet's country, the destruction of the holy city 
and temple, and the extermination of the people. 
It is remarkable for its pathetic descriptions, and 
its affecting images of grief and suffering. 

5. The prophecies of Ezekiel, to a considerable 
extent, agree, in their subject-matter, with those of 
Jeremiah, as will be seen upon comparison. They 
may be divided into two parts. The Jirst repeats 
the judgments, which Jeremiah had denounced 
against the Jews, and, in fearful language, sets 
forth the calamities that were coming upon Judea 
and Jerusalem, because of the idolatry and profli- 
gacy of the inhabitants. The second part is de- 
2* 



14 POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 

signed to encourage and comfort the people during 
their captivity. It foretells the overthrow of the 
Ammonites, Edomites, and Philistines, who had 
triumphed over the Jews in their calamities, the 
destruction of Tyre, and the subjugation of Egypt ; 
and lastly, the final restoration of the Jews from 
their captivity and dispersion. Ezekiel entered 
upon his ministry about 595 years before Christ, 
and continued to prophesy from 21 to 22 years. 
Daniel, the fourth of the greater prophets, was 
carried captive to Babylon, b. c. 606, and flourish- 
ed under Nebuchadnezzar and his successors to 
Cyrus. He was distinguished for his wisdom and 
learning, and was in great favor with the Babyloni- 
an monarchs. He was contemporary with Ezekiel. 
The book of Daniel may be considered under two 
divisions, — 1. Historical ; relating the history of 
himself and of the Jews, under the several kings 
of Babylon. Chap. i. - vi. ; — 2. Prophetical ; em- 
bracing his visions of the coming revolutions in 
the great empires of the earth, and of the advent 
and kingdom of the Messiah. Chap, vi.-xii. 

6. The Minor Prophets. Of these, we can 
give only the names and dates. Hosea flourished 
between 809 b. c. and 725, or, as some think, 698 
b. c Joel is supposed to have prophesied between 
697 b. c and 660 b. c. Amos, b. c. 823-758. 
Obadiah, b. c. 588-583. Jonah, b. c. 856-784. 
Micah,B. c. 757-698. Nahum, b. c. 720-698. 
Habakkuk, b. c. 606-598. Zephaniah, b. c. 640- 
609. Haggai, b. c. 520. Zechariah, b. c. 520- 



POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 15 

518. Malachi, b. c. 436-420. This record shows, 
that the present arrangement of the prophetical 
books has no regard to the order of time, and shows 
further, that several of the prophets were contem- 
porary with each other. Malachi was the last of 
the holy men, upon whom the spirit of God rested 
in prophecy ; and from him to John the Baptist, 
a period of more than 400 years, there was no 
prophet in Israel. 

7. Of the Prophetical Books, it ought to be said, 
that many and large portions of them are written 
in Hebrew Poetry ; and entire poems, constructed 
in accordance with the rules and characteristics of 
this species of writing, are interspersed in the va- 
rious prophecies of these holy and inspired men. 
So that it will be understood, though 5 books are 
especially called poetical, they are not the only 
writings to which we must look for specimens of 
this kind of composition. 



Questions on Chapter II. 

1. 2. What is the number of the poetical books ? 
What is said of the Book of Job ? Is it a relation of facts, 
or a dramatic fiction ? What is the object of the author ? 
Is Job a real personage ? How is he represented by the 
author ? What changes follow ? Who is represented as 
the author of these evils ? Who is Satan ? How is Job 
represented as bearing these calamities? What change 



16 POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 

succeeded to this? What conclusion do you draw, as to 
the object of the whole book ? What is your own view 
of the government of God in this respect ? What is the 
Book of Psalms called in Hebrew ? Who composed the 
larger portion of them ? What other person is named, as 
having probably written some of them? What of the 
rest? What is said of these, in relation to the temple 
service ? What of their present form ? What is said of 
the authorship of Proverbs? What is said of its value? 
Who may be instructed by its contents ? What is the 
meaning of Ecclesiastes ? Who is the author of this 
book ? When written ? What is its object ? What is 
the author's conclusion of the whole matter? Ch. xii. 13, 
14. What is said of the Song of Solomon? 

3. 4. What is the number of the Prophetical Books ? 
How are they divided ? Who are the Greater Prophets ? 
Who are the Minor Prophets ? What is said of the terms 
Greater and Minor? What of the present arrangement 
of the prophetical books ? When did Isaiah enter upon 
the prophetic office ? How long did he prophesy ? Why 
is he called the Evangelical Prophet ? What are his prin- 
cipal prophecies ? For what is Isaiah distinguished, in 
respect to style ? What is said of his prophetical writ- 
ings ? When did Jeremiah begin to prophesy ? How 
long did he pursue it ? What is said of his character ? 
How was he treated by the Jews ? Against whom were 
his denunciations principally directed ? What other 
events did he foretell ? What is said of the last chapter 
of Jeremiah? What is said of the Book of Lamenta- 
tions ? What particular characteristic is mentioned ? 

5. 6. 7. What is said of the prophecies of Ezekiel ? 
How may they be divided ? What of the first part ? 
What is the design of the second ? What are the princi- 
pal events foretold ? When did Ezekiel enter upon his 



POETICAL AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 17 

ministry, — and how long did he continue in it ? What 
is said of Daniel and his captivity ? For what was he 
distinguished ? With whom was he in favor ? How 
may the book of Daniel be divided ? What chapters are 
embraced in the Historical part, and what do they re- 
late ? The Prophetical portion occupies what chapters, 
and foretells what ? Can you give the names of the Mi- 
nor Prophets ? When did Hosea flourish ? About what 
time before Christ did Joel prophesy ? Amos ? Obadiah ? 
Jonah? Micah? Nahum? Habakkuk ? Zephaniah? 
Haggai ? Zechariah ? Malachi ? What is said of the 
arrangement of the Prophetical Books in our Version ? 
Who was the last of the Jewish prophets, previous to 
John Baptist ? What period intervened between Malachi 
and John Baptist ? What is said of the poetical portions 
of these books ? 



18 HISTORICAL BOOKS 



CHAPTER III. 

Books of the New Testament and their Authors, 
— Historical. 

1. As early as the second century the New Tes- 
tament was considered under the two heads or 
divisions of Gospels and Epistles, or Gospels and 
Apostles. The more common division at this 
day is historical, doctrinal, and prophetical. The 
historical embraces the four Gospels and the Acts 
of the Apostles ; and the doctrinal includes all the 
rest, except Revelations, which is classed with 
the prophetical portion of the Scriptures. The 
term New Testament was borrowed at an early 
period by the church from the Scriptures them- 
selves. Matt. xxvi. 28. ; Heb. ix. 15, 20. The 
term Gospel, which is generally applied to the his- 
tories of Christ and his teachings by the four 
Evangelists, is frequently used in a more extended 
sense as significant of the whole system of grace 
and salvation, which the religion of Jesus unfolds. 
The word Gospel is derived from two Saxon 
words, God (Good) and sp el (message or tidings) 
and exactly answers to the Greek Evanggelion, 
which is evidently intended to denote the "glad 
tidings of great joy which shall be unto all peo- 
ple. 55 Luke ii. 10. 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 19 

2. Matthew. Matthew, who is called Levi by 
Mark and Luke (Mark ii. 14. ; Luke v. 27, 29), 
was by birth a Jew, and a native of Galilee ; but 
of what city, or of what tribe, we are not inform- 
ed. Before he became a follower of Christ, he 
was employed as a tax-gatherer and custom-house 
officer under the Romans. He was connected 
with the custom-house at Capernaum, a maritime 
city on the sea of Galilee, and collected the duties 
upon all goods exported or imported at that place, 
and the tribute exacted of those who passed over 
the Lake. That Matthew's condition in life was 
at least easy, is inferred from the entertainment 
which he gave, soon after his call, to his acquaint- 
ances and friends. After being numbered with the 
disciples, he constantly accompanied Christ as a 
hearer, and a witness, of his wonderful works ; 
and continued with him to the end. After the 
ascension he remained at Jerusalem with the rest 
of the disciples, but how long he stayed in Judea 
we are not informed. Nor have we any certain ac- 
count of the time, place, and circumstances of his 
death. An ecclesiastical historian of the fifth cen- 
tury states, that he suffered martyrdom in India ; 
but this is believed to be incorrect. 

3. His Gospel. With regard to the date of the 
gospel by Matthew, and the language in which it 
was written, there has been much discussion. 
Without entering into the merits of the question 
in debate, we shall state what appears to us the 
most probable in regard to the time and language 



20 HISTORICAL BOOKS 

of Matthew's history. It seems clear to our mind, 
that this gospel was composed about the year 37 
or S3, being the first of the four. It was written 
in Judea, for the use, more especially, of the Jews 
or Jewish Christians, and originally, of course, in 
the language of Palestine, which was Hebrew, or 
rather Syro-Chaldaic. At a very early period, 
however, it was translated into Greek for more 
general circulation, but by whom cannot be ascer- 
tained. It is not improbable, that it may have been 
done by Matthew himself. 

4. Mark. This evangelist was a native of 
Judea, and a nephew of Barnabas, being the same 
person mentioned in the Acts as John Mark. He 
travelled extensively. He went from Jerusalem 
to Antioch with Paul and Barnabas, and accompa- 
nied them to other countries as their minister. 
Acts xii. 25 ; xiii. 5. It seems he left them without 
sufficient cause, and returned to Jerusalem ; for 
afterward, when he would have rejoined them in 
their travels, Paul refused to have him. In conse- 
quence of this, Barnabas separated from Paul, and 
taking his nephew proceeded to Cyprus. Acts 
xv. 36-41. Paul and Mark were afterwards, how- 
ever, reconciled. 2 Tim. iv. 11 ; Phil. 24; Col. 
iv. 10. Soon after his journey with Barnabas, he 
met Peter in Asia, and went with him to Rome. 
He is supposed, after the death of Peter, to have 
gone to Egypt, and, having established a church at 
Alexandria, to have died there in the year 67. 

5. His Gospel. The following is the account 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 21 

given by Eusebius, of the occasion of writing his 
gospel. " So greatly did the lustre of piety en- 
lighten the minds of Peter's hearers, that they 
were not satisfied with hearing once, or with the 
unwritten instruction of the Gospel of God; but 
they earnestly requested Mark, whose gospel we 
have, and who was the companion of Peter, to 
leave them a written account of the doctrines 
which had been delivered to them by word of 
mouth. Nor did they cease their solicitations un- 
til they had prevailed upon him ; and thus they 
were the cause of the writing that history, which 
is called the Gospel according to Mark." Such 
is Eusebius's account. His gospel was written 
in Greek, at Rome, probably about the year 64 
or 65. 

6. Luke. With regard to this Evangelist, we 
have but little certain information. By some he is 
supposed to have been a Jew by birth, by others to 
have descended of Gentile parents. Eusebius 
informs us, that he was a native of Antioch, a city 
of Syria. He was a physician, according to the 
opinions of the fathers, and more learned than 
either of the other Evangelists. He was for several 
years the constant companion of Paul ; went with 
him into Macedonia, and thence to Jerusalem ; and, 
when the Apostle was arrested, he followed him to 
Csesarea, and, upon his appeal to the emperor, 
sailed with him to Rome, where he stayed with him 
during his two years' confinement. Acts xvi. 
8-40; xx. xxvii. xxviii. He is honorably men- 
tioned by Paul in several of his Epistles. Col. iv. 



22 HISTORICAL BOOKS 

14; 2 Tim. iv. 11; Philem. 24. His death took 
place in Achaia, in Greece, at the advanced age 
of 84. 

7. His Gospel. The gospel of Luke was prob- 
ably written in Achaia, about the year 64. The 
occasion of its being written is stated with sufficient 
distinctness by Luke himself, in the preface to his 
gospel. " Forasmuch as many have taken in hand 
to set forth in order a declaration of those things 
which are most surely believed among us, even as 
they delivered them unto us, which from the be- 
ginning were eyewitnesses, and ministers of the 
word ; it seemed good to me also, having had 
perfect understanding of all things from the very 
first, to write unto thee in order, most excellent 
Theophilus, that thou mightest know the certainty 
of those things wherein thou hast been instructed. 55 
Luke i. 1-4. It seems, that there were many im- 
perfect records of the life and actions of Christ in 
circulation ; and the probability is, that Theophilus 
had requested Luke to prepare a correct and full 
account of all from the beginning. Having fur- 
nished himself with all necessary information from 
those who were eyewitnesses, he accordingly set 
to work in the composition of his gospel, designed 
more especially for the Gentile converts, in Achaia 
or Greece. 

8. John. The Apostle John was a native of 
Bethsaida, a town on the sea of Galilee. He was 
the son of Zebedee and Salome, and a fisherman 
by occupation. He seems to have been regarded 
with peculiar affection by Jesus, and hence is cal- 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 23 

led "the beloved disciple." He, with James and 
Peter, was present at many interesting scenes at 
which the rest of the disciples were not. Mark v. 
37 ; Matt. xvii. 1, 2 ; xxvi. 36, 37. His gospel is 
almost entirely a record of what he saw and heard. 
He was an eye and ear witness of our Lord's 
labors, travels, teachings, death, and ascension. 
After the ascension he returned to Jerusalem, and 
with Peter healed the lame man at the temple, for 
which they were imprisoned. Acts iii. iv. 2-3. 
Sometime after this he was imprisoned again with 
the rest of the Apostles. Acts v. 17, 18. When it 
was ascertained that great numbers had been con- 
verted in Samaria by Philip's preaching, the 
church at Jerusalem sent unto them Peter and 
John, who, when they had testified and preached 
the word of the Lord, returned to their brethren. 
Acts viii. 5-25. After the council at Jerusalem, 
he is supposed to have gone to Asia Minor. At 
some period of his life he was banished to Patmos, 
an island in the Archipelago ; but, being afterwards 
recalled, he returned to the city of Ephesus, where 
he died at an advanced age, A. D. 100. 

9. His Gospel. The gospel of John was prob- 
ably written about the year 68, at Ephesus, where 
for the most part he resided. The design of this 
gospel seems to have been to supply a record of 
many events in the life of Christ, which the other 
Evangelists had omitted. The justness of this 
will be seen by a comparison of this with the other 
three histories. He is entirely silent concerning 
many things mentioned by them, and others he 



24 HISTORICAL BOOKS 

only touches very briefly, while he furnishes a 
great number of important and interesting facts 
which they had passed by, — the wedding at Cana ; 
the history of Nicodemus ; the woman of Sama- 
ria ; the man blind from his birth ; Lazarus ; &c. 
&c. Several of the fathers testify, that it was 
written at the earnest intreaties of the believers at 
Ephesus. This is what we should expect. The 
Apostle doubtless had often occasion in his preach- 
ing to mention these additional particulars in the 
history of Jesus, and his hearers, on examining the 
other gospels, would of course discover the defi- 
ciency, and would very naturally request him to 
furnish them with a written account of these 
things, that it might be preserved with the other 
records.* 

10. Acts of the Apostles, This work was com- 
posed by Luke the Evangelist, and is manifestly a 
sequel to his gospel, as appears from its com- 
mencement. The design of Luke seems to have 
been to record the evidences of our Saviour's res- 
urrection, and furnish a brief history of the first 

* I am aware that the date of John's Gospel, and the 
occasion of its being written, are questions about which 
there is great dispute. Those who wish to enter into the 
subject may consult Cruse's Eusebius, lib. iii. c. 24. 
Campbell's Preface to John, Section 2, 3, 4, 11. Home's 
Analysis of John's Gospel, Section 2, 4. Lardner's Hist. 
of Apostles and Evangelists, Ch. ix. Works, Vol. V. 414- 
456. Clarke's Preface to John. Tholuck on John, Intro. 
Section 3. Rees's Encyc, Art. John. 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 25 

preaching and planting of the Christian religion in 
the world. For this last he was amply qualified 
in consequence of his extensive information, deriv- 
ed from actors in the field of labor, and from 
his travels with the Apostle Paul. The history- 
embraces the first 30 years of the church from 
Christ's ascension. The first nine chapters are 
occupied in recording the progress of the gospel 
among the Jews ; and here Peter appears as the 
chief personage, and his preaching and acts are 
noticed at some length. The remainder of the 
book is exclusively devoted to an account of PauPs 
labors among the Gentiles. It must not be ex- 
pected, however, that the Acts of the Apostles is a 
complete record of every thing that took place, 
even with reference to Peter and Paul. It will be 
found, upon an examination of PauPs epistles, that 
he has mentioned many interesting particulars in 
his history which are entirely omitted by Luke. 
It is rather an outline of some important facts in 
the first progress of the Christian religion. As it 
ends at the second year of PauPs imprisonment at 
Rome, whither Luke had accompanied him, and 
as this imprisonment ended in the year 63, it was 
doubtless written in the latter part of this year, at 
Rome. 



Questions on Chapter III. 

1. What was the earliest division of the New Testa- 
ment ? What is the common division at this day ? What 
portions are historical ? What is the prophetical portion ? 

3* 



26 HISTORICAL BOOKS 

The doctrinal includes what? Whence came the term 
New Testament ? How is the term Gospel applied ? 
What is the derivation and meaning of the word ? 

2. 3 What is said of the nativity of Matthew ? What 
was his employment before he was called of Christ? 
Where was he stationed? What was his duty there? 
Why do you suppose Matthew was in easy circumstan- 
ces as to the things of this world ? What of him after he 
became a disciple ? What of his death ? What is said 
of the date and language of his Gospel ? In what year 
was it probably written ? Where ? For whom ? In 
what language ? What do you mean by Syro-Chaldaic ? 
Into what language, and by whom, was it translated soon 
after ? 

4. 5. What have you to say of Mark ? What of his 
travels? What is said of his leaving Paul and Barnabas? 
What was the consequence of Paul's refusal ? What and 
where is Cyprus ? Were they afterward reconciled ? 
Why do you think so ? How came Mark to go to Rome ? 
What is he supposed to have done after the death of 
Peter ? What was the occasion of writing his Gospel, ac- 
cording to Eusebius ? Where, and in what language, 
was this Gospel written ? What is the date ? 

6. 7. What is said of Luke ? What was his native 
city ? What was his profession ? What is said of his 
learning ? What is said of his being with Paul ? How 
long was he with Paul in Rome ? How does Paul speak 
of him? Where did he die? At what age? Where, 
and in what year, was his Gospel written ? What does he 
state as the occasion of writing it ? What do you gather 
from this preface ? For whom was the Gospel especially 
designed ? 

8. 9. Where was the native place of the Evangelist 
John ? What was his occupation ? How was he re- 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 27 

garded by Jesus ? What is said of him together with 
James and Peter? What is said of his record? What 
miracle did he and Peter perform ? What mission was 
he sent on by the church at Jerusalem ? Where is he 
supposed to have gone after the council at Jerusalem? 
Where was he banished ? Where is Patmos ? Where did 
he die ? At what date ? Where, and at what time, was 
his Gospel written ? What is its design ? Why do you 
think this ? Can you name some particulars, omitted by 
the other Evangelists, which he has mentioned ? What 
do the fathers say of the occasion of writing it ? Why is 
this reasonable ? 

10. By whom was the Acts of the Apostles written ? 
What was his design ? Was he qualified for this, — and 
why ? What period is embraced in the history ? What 
of the first nine chapters ? What of the remainder ? Is 
it a complete record of all the acts and doings of Peter and 
Paul? Why not I In what light is it to be viewed? 
What is the date ? From what do you gather this con- 
clusion ? 



28 PAUL AND HIS EPISTLES. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Paul and his Epistles. 

1. The Apostle Paul was of Hebrew descent 
(Phil. iii. 5.), a native of Tarsus, the principal 
city of Cilicia, and by birth a Roman citizen. 
Acts xvi. 37, 38 ; xxii. 25-29. He was educated 
under the superintendence of the celebrated Gama- 
liel, a learned Jewish Rabbi, and says of himself, 
that he lived a Pharisee, after the straitest sect, 
from his youth up. During the early part of his 
life he was taught the trade of tent-making, in ac- 
cordance with the maxim of the Jews, that " he 
who teaches not his son a trade, teaches him to be 
a thief," — a maxim worthy the consideration of 
Christian parents. The fact above named, that 
Paul was a Jew, and yet a freeborn citizen of 
Rome, needs to be explained. It was a custom of 
the Roman government to bestow the reward of 
citizenship upon those foreigners who had render- 
ed the state important services. It is probable, 
that this favor had been conferred on some of 
Paul's ancestors for some cause of this character, 
and hence he was by birth a Roman. This privi- 
lege of citizenship, in the decline of the empire, 
was bought for a mere trifle ; and even in the 
days of Paul could be purchased. Acts xxii. 28. 



PAUL AND HIS EPISTLES. 29 

2. The first mention we have of this Apostle 
occurs in the account of the martyrdom of Stephen 
(Acts vii. viii. 1.), where he is called by his He- 
brew name, Saul. After this we hear of him as 
violently persecuting the church at Jerusalem, and, 
having obtained authority of the High Priest, as 
going to Damascus, for the purpose of arresting 
and imprisoning such as called on the name of 
Jesus. Acts ix. After his conversion (Acts ix.) he 
went into Arabia (Gal. i. 17.), and thence returned 
to Damascus, where he preached the Gospel with 
such effect, that the Jews would have killed him, 
had not his friends conveyed him away secretly. 
Acts ix. 22 - 25 ; Gal. i. 17, 18. From this time he 
went forth preaching the word of truth with un- 
shrinking perseverance, amid persecutions, perils, 
and sufferings unparalleled (2 Cor. xi.), until he 
finally finished his course at Rome, where he was 
beheaded by order of the Emperor Nero, A. D. 66. 

3. The Apostle Paul was a person of great pow- 
ers of mind, of sound judgment, of strong passions, 
and of immovable integrity. He was an indefati- 
gable laborer, as his history shows ; a close and 
nervous reasoner, as may be seen from his Epis- 
tles, though sometimes moved to digression by his 
earnest feelings ; and of great and powerful elo- 
quence, which his clear and quick apprehensions 
could adapt to all circumstances, and to every 
grade of hearers. His Epistles are fourteen in 
number, and are of great value to Christians for 
their luminous expositions of Gospel truth. 



30 PAUL AND HIS EPISTLES. 

4. PauVs Epistles. The Epistle to the Ro- 
mans was written from Corinth, about A. D. 57 or 
58. The occasion of writing it seems to have 
grown out of the disputes between the Jewish and 
Gentile converts. The former contended, that they 
were justified by the promises made to the fathers, 
and by the works of the law. This the Gentiles 
denied, and affirmed, that they were equally worthy 
for having followed the law of nature. Hence the 
strife and ill feeling, to remove which is the object 
of this Epistle. The Apostle proceeds to show, 
1. That all are under sin, and therefore under con- 
demnation. 2. That salvation is not by works of 
the law, but is entirely by the grace of God, and 
that both Jews and Gentiles are to receive it on 
this ground, through faith. 3. That the rejection 
of the Jews, which the Gentiles had brought 
against them, was not perpetual, but that they 
were to be brought in with the fulness of the Gen- 
tiles. 4. Various exhortations to love and duty, 
closing with salutations. 1st and 2d Corinthians. 
The first Epistle to the Corinthians was written 
A. D. 57, at Ephesus (ch. xvi. 5, 8.), and not 
Philippi as stated in the subscription at the end. 
And it may be well to say here, once for all, that 
the subscriptions at the end of the several Epistles 
are of no value, — they were not written by the 
authors, but by a later hand, and are not to be 
trusted. This Epistle was written for two rea- 
sons, — 1. To correct certain abuses in the Corin- 
thian church, — as dissensions, impurity, idolatrous 



PAUL AND HIS EPISTLES. SI 

practices, profanation of the Lord's Supper, and 
denial of the resurrection. 2. To give advice, 
which had been asked, concerning marriage, things 
sacrificed to idols, spiritual gifts, charitable collec- 
tions, &c. The second Epistle is written in conse- 
quence of the effect produced by the former, and 
to justify himself against the accusations of a false 
teacher, who had risen up at Corinth, and sought 
to destroy his authority, and draw the people 
away from the truth. He also, in chapters viii. ix. 
renews his exhortations, that they should contribute 
liberally for the poor brethren in Judea. This 
Epistle was written from Macedonia, A. D. 58. 

5. The Epistle to the Galatians was written 
from Corinth, A. D. 52 or 53. Its object is similar 
to that of Romans. A false teacher had affirmed, 
that Paul was not to be followed in what he said 
of the Law, — that the works of the law, and cir- 
cumcision, were necessary. Paul writes to vindi- 
cate his apostolical authority, and to prove to the 
Galatians, that salvation and justification are of the 
grace of God by faith, and not of works. The 
Ephesians, — written at Rome, A. D. 61. The 
object of the Epistle is to confirm the brethren in 
the faith, to give them more enlarged views of 
God and Christ, to remind them that they had 
been saved by grace, and to exhort them to walk 
worthy of their profession, avoiding the iniquities 
of the Gentiles, and faithfully performing the vari- 
ous duties of life. The Epistle to the Philippians 
was written at Rome, A. D. 62 or 63. Its object is 



32 PAUL AND HIS EPISTLES. 

to confirm the believers in the faith, as in the 
Ephesians ; to encourage them to a holy life ; to 
warn them against judaizing teachers, who were 
u enemies of the cross of Christ" ; and also to tes- 
tify the gratitude of the Apostle for the assistance 
they had sent him in his need at Rome. The 
Epistle to the Colossians was written at the same 
place and time with the one last named, — Rome, 
A. D. 62. The occasion of it grew out of some 
difficulties in the church at Colosse, on account of 
which Epaphras had been sent to Rome to consult 
Paul, who replies in this Epistle. In it he sets 
forth, in the first place, the dignity and superiority 
of Christ, — from this he exhorts them to be built 
up in him ; and cautions them against the " philo- 
sophy and vain deceit" of the "traditions of men." 
To this he adds, as usual, exhortations to the prac- 
tical duties of life. 

6. 1st and 2d Thessalonians. Both these Epistles 
were written from Corinth, A. D. 52. The first 
had its occasion in the favorable report brought by 
Timothy of the church at Thessalonica, — and in 
it the Apostle sets forth the proofs of the truth of 
Christianity, and answers objections against it, for 
the purpose of showing them the reasonableness 
of their faith, — and concludes with practical ad- 
monitions. The second grew out of some errors 
existing in the church, an account of which was 
brought him by the person who carried his first 
letter. 1st and 2d Timothy. The first of these 
was written from Macedonia, A. D. 56. The de- 



PAUL AND HIS EPISTLES. S3 

sign of the Epistle was to give Timothy instruc- 
tions respecting the election of officers in the 
church, and the manner in which he should ad- 
monish and teach others, — and to caution him 
against the influence of false teachers, and their 
foolish questions and controversies. The second 
Epistle was written from Rome, A. D. 65. The 
Apostle expecting soon to suffer martyrdom, 
writes this Epistle to give to his beloved Timothy 
his parting instructions ; exhorting him to dili- 
gence and firmness in his ministry, to fortitude in 
enduring such persecutions as may come upon 
him, and to purity of life. He renews again his 
warnings respecting false teachers, &c. He con- 
cludes by requesting Timothy to come to him at 
Rome if possible before the winter, as he is very 
anxious to see him. The Epistle to Titus was 
written from Macedonia, A. D. 64. Its object 
was to give directions to Titus respecting the elec- 
tion of elders ; the adapting his communications to 
age, sex, and circumstances ; and the inculcation 
of obedience to magistrates, and the observance of 
good works. Philemon,— written from Rome, A. D. 
62. Onesimus, the slave of Philemon, had run 
away ; but, having been converted by Paul, he de- 
sires to return to his master ; and this Epistle is 
written by the Apostle to Philemon to gain for him 
his pardon and favor. The design of the Epistle 
to the Hebrews is to demonstrate the superiority of 
Christ over all other agents employed by God, — 
to set forth the typical character of some parts of 
4 



34 PAUL AND HIS EPISTLES. 

the old dispensation, — and, having done this, to 
urge the Hebrew believers to diligence in their 
calling, to obedience of the Gospel, and to the ob- 
servance of its charities and duties. It was written 
from Italy, A. D. 62 or 63. It is a disputed point 
as to whether Paul was the author of this Epistle ; 
and also as to whether it was written in Hebrew or 
Greek. 



Questions on Chapter IV. 

1. 2. 3. Of what descent was Paul ? What was his 
native city ? By birth what was he ? Of what religious 
sect was he? By whom was he educated? What trade 
did he learn, — and why ? What of this maxim ? How 
do you explain the fact, that Paul was a Jew and yet a 
Roman citizen ? Was this citizenship ever purchased ? 
Can you give an example from the New Testament? On 
what occasion do we first hear of Paul ? What of him 
after this ? Can you give an account of his conversion ? 
Where is it found ? What of him after his conversion ? 
How did he escape from Damascus ? Acts ix. 24, 25. 
What is said of him after this ? What is the substance of 
his account of his sufferings, in 2 Cor. xi. ? What was 
the manner and place of his death? When? What of 
Paul, as to his mind ? What of him as a minister ? What 
is the number of his Epistles ? Name them. 

4. Where was the Epistle to the Romans written? 
Date ? What was the occasion of writing it ? For what 
did the Jews contend ? The Gentiles ? What does the 
Apostle set forth in the Epistle for the purpose of healing 



PAUL AND HIS EPISTLES. 35 

these dissensions, — First position ? Second ? Third ? 
How does he close ? What is the date of 1 Cor. ? 
Where written ? What is said of the subscriptions at the 
end of the Epistles? What was the first design of this 
Epistle ? Name some of these abuses. What does the 
second part contain? What was the occasion of the 
second Epistle ? What of chapters viii. and ix. ? What 
is the date of this Epistle, and where written ? 

5. 6. Where was the Epistle to the Galatians written, 
and when ? What was the occasion of its being written ? 
What is the great doctrine taught in it? The Ephesians, 
where written, and when? What is its design, in a doc- 
trinal respect ? What of its practical part ? Philippians, 
where written and when?- What are its contents? For 
what does the Apostle especially thank the brethren at 
Philippi ? The date and place of writing of the Colos- 
sians ? What was the occasion of its being written ? 
What of its contents ? What is the date of the two 
Epistles to the Thessalonians ? Where written ? The 
occasion of the First ? What is the great argument of 
this Epistle ? What gave rise to the Second Epistle ? 
The date and place of writing of the First Epistle to 
Timothy ? What are its instructions ? What caution 
does it contain ? Where and when was the Second of 
Timothy written? What are the particulars on which 
Paul dwells in this Epistle ? What is the closing re- 
quest? The Epistle to Titus, — date and place of 
writing ? Its contents ? Where and when was the Epis- 
tle to Philemon written ? What was the occasion of it ? 
What was the design of the Epistle to the Hebrews? 
Date? Where written ? What is said of the author and 
language of this Epistle ? 



30 THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES 

CHAPTER V. 
The Catholic Epistles and their Authors. 

1. The Epistles called Catholic are seven, that 
of James, two of Peter, one of Jude, and three of 
John. They are called Catholic, as some sup- 
pose, because written to all Christians, the word 
signifying literally, " through the whole," " gen- 
eral," or "universal." 

2. James. There are two persons of this name 
mentioned in the New Testament. The first was 
the son of Zebedee, and brother of John the Evange- 
list ; and was put to death by Herod Agrippa, a. d. 
44. Acts xii. The second, who is supposed to be 
the author of the Epistle of James, was the son 
of Alpheus, and is called the brother of our Lord. 
Gal. i. 18, 19. By Mark he is called James the 
Less. xv. 40. Because of his distinguished piety, 
his purity of life, and acknowledged integrity, he 
was surnamed " the Just." He was murdered in 
a tumult at Jerusalem, by the Jews, a. d. 62 ; a 
period at which there was no governor in Judea, 
the successor of Festus, who had died, not having 
arrived. 

8. His Epistle. This Epistle is believed to have 
been written at Jerusalem, just before the death of 
James ; of course about a. d. 61 or early in 62. 



AND THEIR AUTHORS. S7 

It is addressed to the cc twelve tribes scattered 
abroad," — probably intending more especially the 
believers among them. The design seems to have 
been to exhort them to patience and endurance 
under temptation ; and to warn them against some 
errors of doctrine and practice ; as justification by 
mere faith without works, partiality for rich men, 
an undue desire to become teachers, — an un- 
bridled use of the tongue, want of charity and 
gentleness, &c. Another important object of this 
Epistle was to comfort the Christians under their 
persecutions with the assurance, that " the coming 
of the Lord " (that is, at the ruin of Jerusalem) was 
at hand, wherein he would destroy their enemies the 
unbelieving Jews, and give them rest. It may be 
thought, that Paul in his Epistle to the Romans, 
and James, do not agree concerning faith and 
works. But the seeming disagreement will be 
easily reconciled, when we consider, that Paul 
speaks of that faith " which works by love, and 
purines the heart," while James means, that faith 
which is a mere assent of the mind ; — and on the 
other hand, Paul speaks of the works or ceremonies 
of the Mosaic Law, while James speaks of moral 
works, as feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, 
visiting the sick, &c. 

4. Peter. Simon Peter was a native of Beth- 
saida (John i. 44.), but lived at Capernaum on the 
sea of Galilee. Mark i. 21, 29. The account of 
his call in Matt. iv. 18-20, shows, that he and his 
brother Andrew followed the business of fishing on 
4*- 



38 THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES 

the lake, or sea just named. " And Jesus, walking 
by the sea of Galilee, saw two brethren, Simon, 
called Peter, and Andrew his brother, casting a 
net into the sea ; for they were fishers. And he 
saith unto them, Follow me, and I will make you 
fishers of men. And they straightway left their 
nets, and followed him. 5 ' From this time Peter 
became a constant follower of the Lord Jesus, and 
on many occasions manifested great zeal and de- 
votedness. It was he who, when the Saviour was 
arrested, in the earnestness of his zeal drew a 
sword and cut off the ear of the High Priest's ser- 
vant. And yet, in a few hours after that, when 
danger came, he denied his Master three times, 
and with " cursing and swearing." And immedi- 
ately after he cc wept bitterly " over his weakness 
and sin. Matt. xxvi. 69-75. After the resurrec- 
tion of Christ, Peter stood forth, fearless of all 
danger and suffering, and preached the Gospel 
without wavering to the day of his death. 

5. Peter was a man of a warm heart, of devoted 
affections, and of strong passions. He was gov- 
erned in a great measure by his feelings, and acted 
rather from impulse than judgment. This appears 
from his professions of unshrinking attachment to 
his Master, his passionate denial, and his bitter re- 
pentance ; all in a few hours. After the resurrec- 
tion, however, he seemed to have been made a 
new man. All his former weakness and fears 
had departed, and with a strong heart, and un- 
bending courage, he walked through toil, and peril, 



AND THEIR AUTHORS. 39 

and stripes, and imprisonment in the discharge of 
his ministry, — and finally died in defence of the 
Gospel. He was crucified at Rome, with his head 
downwards, in the reign of Nero, a. d. 65. 

6. His Epistles. The first Epistle of Peter 
was written, a. d. 64. It was written either at 
Babylon or Rome, the question depending upon 
whether Babylon (ch. v. 12, 13), is to be under- 
stood literally, as signifying the city of that name, 
or figuratively of Rome. There are arguments 
for both these interpretations, but our limits will 
not admit them. This Epistle is addressed " to 
the strangers scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, 
Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia." It appears to 
have been written at a period of great calamity 
and persecution, and to have had, as its object, the 
comforting of the Christians under their trials and 
sufferings, with the assurance, that the revelation 
of Jesus Christ was at hand, and would bring them 
deliverance, i. 13, &c. He intreats them, there- 
fore, to cc be sober, and watch unto prayer," since 
cc the end of all things is at hand " (iv. 7), and the 
"judgment" has already " begun at the house of 
God ;" that they may be saved from the destruc- 
tion coming upon " the ungodly and the sinner," 
the enemies of Christ and his Gospel, iv. 15-19. 
The second Epistle was written from Rome, a. d. 
65. The design of this Epistle was to strengthen 
the believers in their faith by " putting them in 
remembrance " of the things spoken to them (i.), 
— to warn them against false teachers, whom he 



40 THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES 

describes at large (ii.), — and to answer the scoffs 
of those who taunted them respecting the coming 
of Christ, and the day of the Lord, which was to 
destroy their enemies, and bring them deliverance. 
This is done by assuring them, that it was at hand, 
" hasting ;" and that they must be prepared for the 
new order of things which was to follow the judg- 
ments, that were to end the old dispensation. 

7. John, and his Epistles. The author of 
these Epistles is the same with the Evangelist, an 
account of whom is given in chapter iii. paragraph 
8. The first Epistle was written just before the 
destruction of Jerusalem, about a. d. 68 or 69 ; 
but where it was written is not known. It sets 
forth certain things respecting the character and 
authority of Christ, — shows the difference be- 
tween true Christians and false ; and earnestly and 
affectionately exhorts the believers to follow Christ, 
and to walk as children of light, in brotherly kind- 
ness and love, having communion with God, who 
is perfect love. The second and third Epistles 
were written probably at Ephesus, and probably 
about a. d. 68 or 69. This, however, is very un- 
certain. The second commends the elect Lady for 
the religious education of her children ; exhorts 
her to be faithful to the truth ; and warns her 
against false teachers. The third approves the 
faith and hospitality of Gaius, and exhorts him to 
fidelity and good works. 

8. Jude, and his Epistle. All we know of 
Jude is, that he was brother of James the Less, 



AND THEIR AUTHORS. 41 

who wrote the Epistle of James ; and was one of 
the twelve. We are not informed when he was 
called, where he preached, nor of the time or man- 
ner of his death. His Epistle was written a. d. 
65, but at what place is not known, nor to whom 
addressed. It exhorts the believers to stand fast 
in the faith, and to beware of those who " turn the 
grace of God into lasciviousness, denying the only 
Lord God, and the Lord Jesus Christ." The judg- 
ments in times past upon such are mentioned ; and 
all are exhorted to be pure and strong in the Gos- 
pel, that they may escape. It is remarkable, that 
Jude quotes from two apocryphal works or tradi- 
tions, — from the " Prophecies of Enoch," vs. 14, 
15, and the story of the body of Moses, v. 9. 

9. It should be observed, that the Second of 
Peter, Second and Third of John, and the Epistle 
of Jude, have from the earliest period been disput- 
ed books ; that is, it has been questioned, whether 
those persons, whose names they bear, were the 
real authors. 



Questions on Chapter V. 

1. 2. 3. Give the number and names of the Catholic 
Epistles. What is the meaning of Catholic, and why 
are they so called ? How many persons are mentioned in 
the New Testament by the name of James ? What of the 
first ? What of the second ? What of his character ? 
What was the manner and date of his death ? When and 



42 THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 

where was his Epistle written ? To whom addressed ? 
What was the design ? What other particularly impor- 
tant object is named ? How do you reconcile Paul and 
James, touching faith and works ? 

4. 5. 6. What is said of Peter ? What was his occupa- 
tion? Give Matthew's account of his call. What is said 
of him after this ? What instance of his zeal is mention- 
ed? What is said of his denial of Christ? What was 
his conduct after the resurrection ? What was his char- 
acter? What evidence have you of this ? What further 
is said of him. Where, how, and when was he put to 
death ? What is the date of his first Epistle ? Where 
written ? To whom is it addressed ? In what part of 
the world are these countries ? To what power are 
they subject now ? To the churches in which of these 
countries did Paul write an Epistle ? Under what cir- 
cumstances was it written ? Its design ? What exhorta- 
tions are set forth ? What do you understand by the 
" end of all things " ? What by the "judgment " which 
begun at " the house of God " ? Who were " the house 
of God " ? Date and place of writing the second of 
Peter ? What was its object ? What was the day of the 
Lord, which he says was " hasting"? Why was this 
matter of joy for the Christians ? 

7. 8. 9. What do you know of the author of the Epis- 
tles of John ? Where and when was the first Epistle 
written ? What are its contents ? What is the date, and 
the place of writing, of the Second and Third ? What is 
the object of the Second? Of the Third? What have 
you to say of Jude ? What is said of his Epistle ? What 
are its contents ? What remarkable particular is men- 
tioned of the Epistle of Jude ? Can you give the sub- 
stance of the quotations ? What is said of certain of the 
Catholic Epistles, — and which are they ? 



DESCRIPTION OF PALESTINE. 43 

CHAPTER VI. 

Description of Palestine. 

1. Names. The country in question is called, in 
Scripture, the Land of Canaan, because it was first 
settled, as is supposed, by Canaan, the youngest 
son of Ham, the son of Noah. It was called the 
Land of Promise, because God promised it to 
Abraham and his seed as an inheritance. Gen. xiii. 
14, 15. It received the name of Land of Israel 
from the Israelites, or the posterity of Jacob, who 
settled there. The Land of Judah was at first 
applied only to that part allotted to the tribe of 
Judah ; but, during the existence of the second 
temple, and under the dominion of the Romans, 
Judea was the name of the whole country. The 
appellation of Holy Land, has been given it by 
Christians, because it was the spot, chosen of God, 
for the more direct display of his presence and 
power ; and the place of the Saviour's ministry, of 
his miracles, sufferings, and death. This name 
was not unknown to the Hebrews, for we find it 
used by the prophet Zechariah, ii. 12. Palestine is 
derived from the Philistines, a people or tribe who 
are supposed to have migrated from Egypt, and 
settled in the western borders of this country, near 
the Mediterranean Sea. 



44 DESCRIPTION OF PALESTINE. 

2. Extent and Divisions. Palestine lies at the 
eastern extremity of the Mediterranean Sea, the 
western coast being washed by its waters, and hav- 
ing Syria on the North, and Arabia on the South 
and East. It is now a part of Turkey in Asia. 
The more recent, and probably more accurate, 
statements, make the country about 200 miles in 
length, and from SO to 80 or 90 in breadth. In the 
original allotment of the territory among the twelve 
tribes, it was, of course, divided into 12 parts, 
or provinces, each tribe receiving its respective 
portion, distinct from all the others. After the 
death of Solomon, the union of the twelve tribes was 
broken up, and their territories converted into two 
independent kingdoms, that of Judah, and that 
of Israel. The kingdom of Israel embraced the 
northern portion of the country, and that which 
lay east of the Jordan ; and was composed of the 
ten tribes who revolted from the house of David. 
The kingdom of Judah occupied the southern di- 
vision, and took in the two tribes of Judah and 
Benjamin. Under the Romans, and during the 
time of our Saviour, Palestine, west of the Jordan, 
was divided into the three provinces of Galilee, 
Samaria, and Judea. Galilee was on the north, 
and was divided into the Galilee of the Gentiles, 
or Upper Galilee on the north, and Lower Galilee 
on the south, situated between the Lake Genne- 
sareth and the Mediterranean Sea. Lower Galilee 
was the principal seat of Christ's ministry, and the 
native district of most, if not all, his disciples, — 



DESCRIPTION OF PALESTINE. 45 

hence the appellation, Men of Galilee. Samaria 
occupied the middle division ; and to the south lay 
Judea. This shows why Jesus, in travelling from 
Judea to Galilee, "must needs pass through Sa- 
maria." John iv. 4. 

3. Face of the Country. (1.) Mountains. Pal- 
estine is distinguished for its mountains, and a sin- 
gle glance at a map of the country, is sufficient to 
satisfy us of the general roughness of its surface. 
There seem to be three great ranges, the first 
occupying the north ; and the other two, on the 
east and west of Jordan, thrown in broken ridges 
over the middle and southern divisions. The 
northern range is known under the name of Leba- 
non, and is famed in the Scriptures for its lofty 
cedars. 1 Kings, v. 6 ; 2 Chron. ii. 8 ; Ps. xcii. 12; 
Cant. v. 15. From these, Solomon obtained much 
of the materials for his temple. Modern travellers 
inform us, that but few remain at the present day ; 
not more than 20 of the larger size. The highest 
peak of Lebanon is Hermon, and is supposed to 
be 9,000 or 10,000 feet in elevation. Many of 
the summits are covered with perpetual snow. 
The range east of the Jordan took the name of 
Bashan in the north, that of Gilead in the centre, 
and to the south it was called Abarim. From 
Pisgah, one of the summits of the Abarim range, 
Moses was permitted to view the future residence 
of Israel. Deut. xxxiv. 1. This peak commands 
an extensive and beautiful prospect of the Holy 
Land. The range west of Jordan covers Upper 



46 DESCRIPTION OF PALESTINE. 

Galilee, or the Galilee of the Gentiles, with nu- 
merous ridges ; and on entering Lower Galilee, it 
extends, at broken intervals, to the shores of the 
Mediterranean, leaving extensive plains on the 
east, toward the river, with here and there a soli- 
tary peak rising on the prospect, as Mount Tabor, 
which is nearly a mile in elevation. From the 
coast, the range under the name of Carmel, stretch- 
es away southeast about 40 miles into the interior. 
Further down, into Samaria, the same general 
range was known as the Mountains of Israel, or the 
Mountains of Ephraim, embracing the heights of 
Ebal and Gerizim, between which was the city 
Shechem, or Sychar, where occurred the remark- 
able conversation between Christ and the woman 
of Samaria. John iv. As the range passed further 
south, it received the name of the Mountains of 
Judah, and, taking in the hills around Jerusalem, 
stretched far on to the south and east, and finally 
terminated near the southern extremity of the 
Dead Sea. 

4.(2.) Lakes, or Seas. There are two sheets of 
water, which deserve notice. The Lake of Gen- 
nesareth, called also the Sea of Galilee, because it 
lay east of that district, and the Sea of Tiberias, 
from the city of that name, which stood on its 
western shore, is situated in the northeastern part 
of Palestine, and, according to Josephus, is about 
17 miles in length, and 5 or 6 in breadth. Its 
waters are clear, very agreeable for drinking, and 
abound with different kinds of fish. Here the dis- 



DESCRIPTION OF PALESTINE. 47 

ciples of our Lord pursued their business of fishing ; 
and it was while engaged in this, that Simon Peter 
and his brother Andrew, and James, and John, 
were called to follow the Lord. The reader will 
peruse, with pleasure, the beautiful description of 
the interview between Christ and his disciples, on 
the shores of this lake, as recorded by John, xxi. 
1-13. It was from a vessel on this lake, also, that 
Christ delivered the parable of the net cast into the 
sea. Matt. xiii. 47, 48. On the northern coast, were 
situated the cities of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Ca- 
pernaum, which our Lord addressed in such start- 
ling language for their hardness of heart, respect- 
ing his mighty works. Matt. xi. 21 - 24. Near by, 
was Magdala, whence, probably, came Mary, call- 
ed in the New Testament, Magdalene, — the ap- 
pellation meaning, doubtless, Mary of Magdala. 
Matt, xxviii. 1. The other body of water is called 
the Dead Sea, from the sluggishness of its waters ; 
the Salt Sea, from its saltness ; the Sea of Sodom, 
from having been the site of this city, &c. Jose- 
phus calls it the Lake Asphaltites, from the abun- 
dance of bitumen found in it. It lies on the south- 
eastern border of Palestine, and is about 70 miles 
in length, and from 17 to 20 in breadth. Its waters 
are bitter, and more salt than those of the ocean ; 
and the country around is represented as desolate 
and dismal in the extreme. 

5. (3.) Rivers. There is only one stream in 
Palestine, which can properly be called a river, — 
the Jordan. This takes its rise at the foot of the 



48 DESCRIPTION OF PALESTINE. 

Lebanon mountains, passes through Lake Genne- 
sareth, and pours itself into the Dead Sea. It is, 
perhaps, 100 miles in length, about 9 or 10 feet 
deep, and 60 or 70 wide, with a strong and rapid 
current. The other streams, sometimes called riv- 
ers, are nothing more than torrents, which, when 
swelled with floods of rain or melting snow, come 
dashing down the mountains with great violence, 
and, for a season, pour through the plains a consid- 
erable body of water. In the summer, however, 
they sink away into mere brooks, and are often 
dried up altogether. Notwithstanding their tem- 
porary character, they often, when increased by 
two or three days' rains, do much damage to fields, 
flocks, and buildings. Isaiah xxviii. 2, 17. Hence 
comes the parable of the wise and foolish builder, 
which is beautifully illustrated by this fact. Matt. 
vii. 24-27. 

6. Climate. Such is the diversified surface of 
Palestine, that it embraces almost every variety of 
climate, from the severe cold of the frigid zone, to 
the intense heat of the torrid. While the ther- 
mometer on the plains, or in the valleys, stands at 
upwards of 100°, the summits of the mountains are 
covered with deep snow. As the winter advances, 
the winds and the cold become intensely severe, 
and, in some instances, prove fatal to those who 
are unacquainted with the country and climate. 
The roads are broken by the torrents, and filled 
with ice, and snow, and rubbish ; and the paths 
over the mountains, especially in steep places, are 



DESCRIPTION OF PALESTINE. 49 

rendered almost impassable, and can be traversed 
only with great labor and danger. In the light of 
these facts, we see the propriety of the Saviour's 
remark, when predicting the calamities that would 
attend the destruction of Jerusalem. He exhorts 
his disciples to pray, that their flight be not in the 
winter, Matt. xxiv. 20. The reason is very obvi- 
ous, — he knew the difficulties and dangers of a 
flight through such a country at this season, and he 
would have them leave the city while the roads 
were passable. The same particulars render 
another important passage perfectly intelligible, — 
11 The harvest is past, the summer is ended, and 
we are not saved." Jer. viii. 20. The prophet is 
describing the coming invasion of Nebuchadnez- 
zar, and the false security of the people, who have 
been deceived by certain of their leaders, probably 
the friends of Nebuchadnezzar, and in his pay. 
These assure them, that there is no danger, that 
there will be no war, when, in fact, the enemy are 
on the march. In the emphatic language of the 
prophet, — " They cry, Peace, peace, when there 
is no peace." Suddenly, they are roused with the 
news, that the invading army is actually within 
their territories, and, in the bold style of the proph- 
ets, they are represented as so near, that the neigh- 
ing of their horses is heard, and the land trembles 
beneath their march. The people are in conster- 
nation ; they had suffered the warm season to pass 
without making preparations to defend themselves, 
believing there would be no invasion, — now the 
5* 



50 DESCRIPTION OF PALESTINE. 

troops of Nebuchadnezzar were upon them, winter 
had come, and they had no means of escape, — 
they cry out in despair, " The harvest is passed, 
the summer is ended, and we are not saved." 
This was only another way of saying, after the 
eastern style of circumlocution, " Winter has 
come, and we are not saved," or, have not es- 
caped. Their despair arose from their knowledge, 
that winter rendered flight impossible, in conse- 
quence of the torrents swelled by the rains, the 
slippery and dangerous state of the mountain 
paths, and the extreme cold. They felt, therefore, 
that they were at the mercy of their enemies. Jen 
viii i xiii. 16 ; xxiii. 12 ; Job vi. 15, 16. 



Questions on Chapter VI. 

I. 2. Why was the country of the Jews called the Land 
of Canaan ? What name is mentioned next ? Where is 
the promise recorded, and what is it ? What is the mean- 
ing of the word "forever," in this case? Whence the 
name, Land of Israel? What of the Land of Judah ? 
Why was it called Holy Land ? What other name had 
it, and why ? Where is Palestine situated ? Give its 
boundaries. To what power is it now subject ? What is 
its extent ? What was the original division ? How was 
it divided after the death of Solomon ? What part did the 
kingdom of Israel embrace ? What part the kingdom of 
Judah ? How was it divided under the Romans ? What 
division was called Galilee ? How was this district itself 



DESCRIPTION OF PALESTINE. 51 

divided? What particulars are mentioned of it? Where 
was Samaria ? Where Judea ? How would one go from 
Judea to Galilee ? John iv. 4. 

3. 4. What is said of the surface of the country ? What 
of the northern range of mountains? What of Hermon ? 
What of the eastern range ? What noted peak is men- 
tioned, and why noted? What of the western range? 
Where does it take the name of Carmel ? By what names 
was it known in Samaria ? What of Ebal and Gerizim ? 
What further is said of this range ? What two seas are 
mentioned ? What of Lake Gennesareth ? Its names, 
and why? Its situation and extent? What scripture 
facts are connected with it ? What cities on its northern 
shore ? What is mentioned of them ? Why was Mary 
probably called Magdalene ? What is the other body of 
water? What are its names, and why? Its location? 
Its extent ? What is said of it ? 

5. 6. What are the rivers of Palestine ? What is the 
size of the Jordan ? What of the other streams ? What 
of their being swollen by sudden rains ? What parable 
of our Lord refers to this ? Repeat it. What is said of 
the climate ? Of the winters ? What is said of travelling 
in the winter ? What sayings of Christ are explained by 
these facts? How do they illustrate Jeremiah viii. 20 ? 
Give the passage. What is said of Nebuchadnezzar? 
How does the prophet represent the suddenness of the 
invasion ? How do the people receive the news ? What 
is meant by the expression, " The harvest is passed, the 
summer is ended"? (Winter is come.) What did the 
people mean by crying out, that they were not saved ? 
What w r as the cause of their despair ? 



52 AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Agriculture, <^c. of the Jews. 

1. Judea was eminently an agricultural coun- 
try ; and all the institutions of Moses were calcu- 
lated to encourage the Jews in the cultivation of 
their lands, both as a foundation of national wealth 
and prosperity, and as a means of preserving the 
purity of their faith and manners. Accordingly, 
after they had obtained possession of the country, 
they applied themselves, after the example of their 
ancestors, to the raising and tending of cattle, and 
to the various pursuits of agriculture. Cain was a 
tiller of the ground, and Abel was a keeper of 
sheep. Gen. iv. 2. Abraham and Lot are repre- 
sented as possessing very great herds of cattle, 
insomuch that they separated for want of pastur- 
age. Gen. xiii. 6. Jacob also must have had im- 
mense numbers, since, to propitiate his brother 
Esau, he offered him a present of five hundred and 
eighty head of cattle. Gen. xxxii. 13-17. And it 
was customary in those days to estimate a person's 
wealth by the number of his cattle, or the extent 
of his herds and flocks. 

2. It is worthy of notice, also, that the occupa- 
tions of husbandry, were not disdained by the 
greatest and most distinguished men of those ages. 



AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 53 

Moses was a shepherd. Exod. iii. 1. Shamgar 
was a herdsman, which occupation he left to be- 
come a judge in Israel. And Gideon was called 
from his threshing-floor. Judg. vi. 11. Saul, also, 
was a herdsman, and that too while he was a 
king. 1 Sam. xi. 5. David was a keeper of sheep. 
1 Sam. xvi. 11 ; Ps. lxxviii. 71. The prophets 
also were engaged in the same occupations when 
called of God to be teachers in Israel, as will be 
seen in the case of Amos, who was a herdsman, 
i. 1 ; and of Elisha, who was taken from the plough, 
1 Kings xix. 19. And women of rank, likewise, as 
well as those of the humbler sort, were employed 
in tending flocks. Such were Rachel, the daugh- 
ter of Laban, Gen. xxix. 9 ; and Zipporah and her 
sisters, the daughters of Jethro, who was a prince, 
or, what was nearly equivalent in dignity, a priest 
of Midian. Exod. ii. 16. These examples should 
teach us, that we ought not to look upon any occu- 
pation as mean or unworthy, however humble, if 
it be useful. Nothing that is virtuous, can be con- 
temptible ; no employment, that has the good of 
individuals or of society in view, can be mean ; 
and no person, however great or high in rank, 
loses any thing of his dignity by becoming useful. 

3. The perfect understanding which existed 
between the herdsman and his cattle, and the 
shepherd and his flock, is well illustrated by the 
following extracts : — 

" In Lithuania and Muscovy, as soon as the sun 
has risen, the herdsman daily winds his horn : on 



54 AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 

the well-known signal, the stalls being opened, the 
horses, mules, goats, &c. obey the summons without 
reluctance. As soon as they are assembled in a 
body, he marches at the head of them, whilst they 
obsequiously follow their leader into such meadows 
as he sees most convenient for them. By a second 
signal they are led to water, and by a third, con- 
ducted home again ; where each repairs to his 
own proper stall, without the least disorder or con- 
fusion. 53 Dr. Henderson, when in Iceland, in- 
quired of two girls, who were keeping sheep, how 
they distinguished them so easily ? " 0," said 
they, " we know them all by nameP These facts 
give great beauty and significancy to the language 
of Christ, in John x. 3, 4. " And the sheep hear 
his voice ; and he calleth his own sheep by name, 
and leadeth them out. And when he putteth forth 
his own sheep, he goeth before them, and the 
sheep follow him, for they know his voice." 

4. The earliest mention of a plough is in Deut. 
xxii. 10. These instruments seem to have been 
similar to those now in use, furnished with a share 
and coulter. 1 Sam. xiii. 20, 21 ; Isa. ii. 4. &c. 
The preparation of the earth for the seed, was 
also very like that of the present day ; as may be 
gathered from Jer. iv. 3, where mention is made 
of ploughing the fallow ground ; and from Isa. 
xxviii. 24, where reference is made to harrowing, 
or breaking up the clods. See also Hos. x. 11. 
Mention is made of manures and artificial methods 
of enriching the soil, notwithstanding its great 



AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 55 

natural fertility. 2 Kings, vi. 25 ; Luke xiv. 34, 
35. The sowing of the seed is well set forth in 
the parable of the sower in Matt. xiii. There was, 
however, another way of scattering the grain, 
which deserves to be noticed. " They sow their 
rice upon the water, and before sowing, while the 
earth is covered with water, they cause the ground 
to be trodden by oxen, horses, and asses, which go 
mid-leg deep." This extract from Chardin, beau- 
tifully illustrates the following, — " Blessed are ye 
that sow beside all waters, that send forth thither 
the feet of the ox, and the ass." Isa. xxxii. 20. 
" Cast thy bread upon the waters ; for thou shalt 
find it after many days." Eccl. xi. 1 ; an exhorta- 
tion to charity, drawn from this practice of sowing 
their seed upon the water, which overflowed their 
fields, and which, after many days, when the water 
had subsided, and the grain had matured, they 
found in an abundant harvest. 

5. The seed-time of the country embraced a 
space of about two months, from the first of Octo- 
ber, to the first of December. Towards the close 
of October, or the beginning of November, com- 
menced what were termed the former or early 
rains, there being two rainy seasons during the 
year. And as these rains and the heavy dews were 
indispensably necessary to the growth and support 
of vegetation, they were consequently objects of 
great desire and longing, especially in dry seasons, 
and hence the frequent allusions to them. " They 
waited for me as for the rain ; and they opened 



56 AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 

their mouths wide as for the latter rain." Job 
xxix. 23. See also, Deut. xi. 14 ; Prov. xvi. 15; 
Jer. v. 24 ; Hos. vi. 3 ; Zech. x. 1. At the period 
named, that of the early rains, they ploughed or 
prepared their land, sowed their wheat and barley, 
and waited the harvest. 

6. The harvest season comprised the two 
months of April and May, at the commencement 
of which the latter rain begins to fall, and con- 
tinues at intervals for about two weeks. There 
were four months between sowing and the full 
harvest, though the reaping was in part commen- 
ced before this. The period having arrived, the 
reapers went to the field with their sickles, cut 
down the grain, bound it up in sheaves, and left it 
ready to be taken from the field. This finished, 
the carts or wagons were brought in and loaded 
with the grain, which was transported to the barns 
(Matt. vi. 26 ; xiii. 30, &c) ; or laid up in stacks, 
when the barns were not sufficient to contain the 
abundance. (Exod. xxii. 6.) 

7. The grain gathered into the barns, the next 
business was the threshing it out. This was 
done in various ways. The flail was used for this 
purpose ; and for some kinds of grain, small staffs 
or rods. Isa. xxviii. 27, 23. Sometimes it was 
done by horses and oxen, who were shod with 
brass, and made to pass over the corn, and thus 
tread it out. To this Moses alludes, when he 
says, " Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he 
treadeth out the corn." Deut. xxv. 4. See, also, 



AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 57 

Mich. iv. 12, 13; Hos. x. 11. This mode of 
threshing is still retained in Persia, India, and 
Crim Tartary ; and buffaloes are employed for the 
same purpose in Ceylon. Another method was the 
driving a loaded cart, or a machine expressly pre- 
pared with teeth for this work, over the corn, so 
that the wheels or teeth running backwards and 
forwards, might shake out or separate the grain. 
Isa. xxviii. 28; xli. 15. This instrument is fre- 
quently employed as a figure for representing the 
destructive judgments of God upon the wicked. 

8. Threshing-floors are frequently mentioned in 
the Scriptures. A threshing-floor was a smooth, 
hard plat of ground, somewhat elevated, in the 
open air, sometimes covered at the top, or roofed, 
but left open at the sides, that the wind might 
come in freely for the winnowing of the grain. 
After the grain had been thoroughly threshed, the 
workman took his winnowing shovel, or fan (Isa. 
xxx. 24.), and threw it up against the wind, which 
drove back the chaff into a heap, while the heavier 
grain fell to the ground. By this method the grain 
was collected into one place or heap, and the chaff 
into another. The former was then gathered into 
the granaries or barns, and the latter was burned, 
a fire being set to the heap which was not quench- 
ed till the whole was consumed. Hence the pas- 
sage in Matt. iii. 12, where Christ draws from this 
practice a figure to represent the destruction of 
the Jews, " Whose fan is in his hand, and he will 
thoroughly purge his floor, and gather his wheat 
6 



53 AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 

into the garner ; but he will burn up the chaff with 
unquenchable fire, " — that is, the judgment shall 
not cease till they are utterly destroyed. 

9. Grinding. In very early times corn was 
simply parched ; after this, it was pounded in a 
mortar. Prov. xxvii. 22. At a later period, mills 
or mill-stones were used. The following, from 
Dr. E. D. Clarke, will illustrate this particular ; 
" Scarcely had we reached the apartment prepar- 
ed for our reception, when, looking from the win- 
dow into the court-yard, we beheld two women 
grinding at a mill. They were seated upon the 
ground opposite to each other, and held between 
them two round, flat stones. In the centre of the 
upper stone was a cavity or hole for pouring in 
the corn, and by the side of this an upright wooden 
handle for moving the stone. As this operation 
began, one of the women opposite received it from 
her companion, who pushed it towards her, who 
again sent it to her companion ; thus communicat- 
ing a rotary motion to the upper stone ; their left 
hands being all the while employed in supplying 
fresh corn, as fast as the bran and flour escaped 
from the sides of the machine." This happily 
illustrates the saying of our Saviour, " Two women 
shall be grinding at the mill, the one shall be taken 
and the other left." Matt. xxiv. 41. 

10. Grinding at the mill was considered as 
an inferior employment, and hence was assigned 
to female slaves, captives, and prisoners. For 
this reason Samson was set to this labor as a 



AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 59 

mark of contempt. Judg. xvi. 21. And this fact 
gives a force and significancy to the language ad- 
dressed by the prophet to Babylon, — " Come 
down, and sit in the dust, O virgin daughter of 
Babylon ; sit on the ground, take the mill- 
stones and grind meal." Isa. xlvii. 1, 2. See, also, 
Lam. v. 13 ; Exod. xi. 5. 

11. The vintage or the gathering of grapes for 
wine, took place in June and July, when the clus- 
ters of grapes were cut from the vines, and thrown 
into the wine-press, or vat, where they seem first 
to have been trodden by men, and then pressed. 
Isa. lxiii. 3; Rev. xix. 15. Palestine was cele- 
brated for its grapes, both in quantity and quality 
(Numb. xiii. 23) ; and several districts were distin- 
guished for their exquisite wines. In consequence 
of the value placed upon these, watch-towers were 
erected in the vineyards, and persons employed to 
look out and guard the vines from depredations, — 
which explains Isa. v. 2 ; Matt. xxi. 33. When 
the wine was pressed out from the grape, it was 
put up in bottles, which were made of leather, or 
skins. These would in time become old and 
worn, and of course weak and rotten. Hence the 
danger of putting new wine into old bottles, lest 
by fermentation it should burst them and be lost. 
Matt. ix. 17. This also illustrates Psalm cxix. 83. 
"I am become like a bottle in the smoke ;" signi- 
fying, that he was worn out and useless ; as a bot- 
tle in the smoke and heat would soon become dry 
and cracked, and unfit for use. 



60 AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 

12. Beside the grape many other fruits abound- 
ed in Judea, especially the olive, which, was ex- 
tensively cultivated, and produced a valuable oil, 
of which frequent mention is made in the Scrip- 
tures. 1 Kings v. 11. with Ezek. xxvii. 17 ; Hos. 
xii. 1 ; Mich. vi. 15. Dates, Jigs, pomegranates, 
melojis, cucumbers, &c. were also common. In his 
visit to upper Egypt, Jowett observes, " extensive 
fields of ripe melons and cucumbers, adorned the 
sides of the river, and produced in great abun- 
dance." This gives light to the murmurs of the 
Israelites, — " We remember the cucumbers, and 
the melons, and the leeks, &c. ; but now our soul 
is dried away." Numb. xi. 5, 6. He continues, 
" Some guard is placed over them, however. Oc- 
casionally, but at long and desolate intervals, we 
noticed a little hut, made of reeds, just capable of 
containing one man ; being, in fact, little more 
than a fence against a north wind. In these, I 
observed, sometimes, a poor old man, perhaps 
lame, feebly protecting the property." This ad- 
mirably illustrates Isa. i. 8. " And the daughter of 
Zion is left as a lodge in a garden of cu- 
cumbers," — expressive of loneliness and deso- 
lation. 



Questions on Chapter VII. 

1. What is said of the institutions of Moses respecting 
the agriculture of Judea ? What effect did this have 3 
What was Cain's occupation ? Abel's ? What is said of 



AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 61 

Abraham and Lot ? What fact is mentioned of Jacob ? 
How was it customary to estimate a man's wealth in 
those days ? 

2. What is said of the occupations of husbandry, as to 
their being honorable ? Give some examples of distin- 
guished persons being so employed. What of several of 
the prophets ? Examples. Of women of rank ? Exam- 
ples. What is said of the power and dignity of priests in 
the age in review ? What moral lesson do the foregoing 
facts teach us ? 

3. What is the substance of the extract touching the 
understanding which existed between the herdsman and 
his cattle, &c. ? What is the testimony respecting the 
names of sheep ? What passage is illustrated by these 
particulars ? 

4. What is said of the plough? Of the preparation of 
the earth ? Was the soil of Judea naturally fertile ? 
What is the substance of the parable of the Sower ? 
What remarkable method of sowing seed is mentioned ? 
W 7 hat passages are happily illustrated by a knowledge of 
this practice ? Give the meaning of Ecclesiastes, xi. 1. 

5. What part of our year was their seed-time ? When 
did the former or early rains commence? How many 
rainy seasons were there ? Why are these so frequently 
alluded to in Scripture ? Give an example of this allu- 
sion. What was done at the time of the early rains ? 

6. When was their harvest season ? What is said of 
the latter rains ? What time elapsed from sowing to full 
harvest ? Give a sketch of the harvest labors. Repeat 
the passage in Matt. xiii. 30. Who are represented by 
the wheat ? Who by the tares ? 

7. In threshing their grain, did they use the flail ? 
What other method is named? Does Moses allude to 
this ? In what countries is this mode of threshing con- 

6* 



62 AGRICULTURE OF THE JEWS. 

tinued at the present day ? What other method is men- 
tioned ? What is said of this instrument's being used as a 
figure ? 

8. Describe the threshing-floors. Describe the method 
of separating the grain from the chaff. What was done 
with the chaff? What passage in Matt. iii., is illustrated 
by these practices ? The unquenchable fire is used as a 
figure of what ? Why is it called unquenchable ? (Be- 
cause it does not cease till all is consumed ?) Give an ex- 
ample from Ezek. xx. 47, 48. 

9. 10, What methods of preparing corn for food are 
mentioned ? Give an account of the mills, and the pro- 
cess of grinding. What passage is illustrated by this 
custom ? How was the employment of grinding regard- 
ed ? Give an example. How does this explain Isa. 
xlvii. 1,2? 

11. When did the gathering of grapes take place? 
What was done ? For what was Palestine celebrated ? 
How were the vineyards guarded ? Describe the eastern 
bottles. How does this explain Matt. ix. 17 ? What 
other passage is illustrated by it ? 

12. What is said of the olive ? What other fruits 
abounded in Judea ? What does Jowett say of the mel- 
ons, &c. of Egypt ? What passage is illustrated by this ? 
What is further said in relation to guarding the fields ? 
What passage is explained by this circumstance ? What 
does the figure express ? 



DWELLINGS AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 63 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Dwellings and Domestic Affairs. 

1. In the earlier ages men lived in Tents, the in- 
vention of which is ascribed in Scripture to Jabal, 
son of Lamech. Gen. iv. 20 ; xviii. 1, 2. These 
were followed by the erection of houses, or huts, 
constructed of the branches and bark of trees, 
mud, &c. The Saviour seems to allude to houses 
of this last material (Matt. vii. 27), which would 
be easily swept away when " the rains descended, 
and the floods came." The richer sort erected 
buildings of wood and stone, which united security 
and convenience. 

2. The style of eastern houses was, and is, very 
different from that which prevails in this country 
and in Europe. Connected with almost every 
house was a court, enclosed or surrounded with a 
cloister, over which, if the house was more than 
one story, was erected a gallery of equal extent, 
having a balustrade or lattice work going round it, 
to prevent people from falling into the court below. 
Deut. xxii. 8. To protect this court from the rain 
and from the heat of the sun, an awning or canopy 
was extended on rope from one side to the other, 
which could be unrolled, or rolled up at pleasure. 
A flight of stairs was placed on the outside of the 



64 DWELLINGS AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 

building, by which a person might ascend to the 
gallery or roof, and descend again, without enter- 
ing the house. 

3. These particulars will illustrate Mark ii. 
1-4 ; Luke v. 18, 19. The friends of the paraly- 
tic did not " break up the roof" and "tiling," as 
represented by our translation ; but, finding, the 
crowd so great, that they could not gain entrance to 
the court where Christ was teaching, they carried 
the sick man up the stairs, on the outside into the 
gallery, took away the balustrades, and, removing 
or rolling up the awning, lowered him down at the 
very feet of Jesus. 

4. The roof was always flat, and was used for a 
variety of purposes, as sleeping, walking, devo- 
tional exercises, &c. "All sleep upon the tops of 
their houses, their beds being spread upon the ter- 
races, without any other covering over their heads 
than the vault of heaven. And, as we generally 
rode out on horseback at a very early hour, we 
perceived on the tops of the houses people either 
still in bed, or just getting up." Morier. 1 Sam. 
ix. 26. Samuel had probably slept on the house- 
top. cc We supped on the top of the house, for 
coolness, and lodged there likewise." Pocock. 
Peter went up to the house-top to pray. Acts x. 9. 
And from Jer. xxxii. 29; 2 Kings xxiii. 12; 
Zeph. i. 5, it appears that religious ceremonies 
were not uncommon there. 

5. Guests were also entertained on the roof on 
festal occasions. " I have in view two houses," 



DWELLINGS AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 65 

says Jowett, " where marriages have taken place, 
and the court yards, and the tops of the houses, are 
crowded with guests. 5 ' It would seem, from Matt. 
x. 27, that public announcements were sometimes 
made from the house-tops. Among the Turks, 
who have no bells, a crier proclaims the hours of 
worship from the house-tops. Catherwood, in his 
beautiful Panorama of Jerusalem, represents the 
people as trading on the tops of the houses. As 
you enter upon the terrace, there is seen on the left 
a merchant exposing his goods to sale, and one, 
who has apparently just been bargaining with him, 
is passing down the stairs on the outside of the 
house into the street. 

6. In cities, where the houses joined each other, 
the roofs, being flat, often formed a continuous 
walk, the entire length of the street. This illus- 
trates the propriety and force of Christ's exhorta- 
tion, touching the destruction of Jerusalem : " Let 
him that is on the house-top not come down to 
take any thing out of his house 55 (Matt. xxiv. 17) ; 
that is, when he sees the destruction approaching, 
let him not attempt to save his goods, but hasten 
along the roofs of the houses, and escape over the 
city walls, or at the gate before it shall be closed, 
and the siege commence. Or perhaps, it may mean 
that he should not stay to go into the house, but 
escape by the stairs on the outside into the street? 
and so through the gate. 

7. Furniture, The use of chairs was little known 
in the East. The poorer classes sat cross-legged 



66 DWELLINGS AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 

on mats or skins, thrown upon the floor. The rich 
had sofas and couches. At the end of the room, 
and sometimes on two or three sides of it, was a 
divan, or raised seat extending along the wall, one 
or two feet high, and about three feet broad. This 
was covered with cushions, and furnished with 
bolsters or pillows for leaning ; and here the peo- 
ple sat, with their backs resting against the wall, 
which was also provided with bolsters. Amos vi. 
4 ; Ezek. xiii. 18. "Woe to the women that sew 
pillows to all armholes," — literally to "elbows," 
— expressive of luxury and ease. 

8. Their beds are described in the following 
passage from Han way : " Soon after supper, the 
company retired, and beds were taken out of the 
niches made in the walls for the purpose, and laid 
on the carpet. They consisted only of two thick 
cotton quilts, one of which was folded double, and 
served as a mattress, and the other for a covering, 
with a large, flat pillow for the head.'" This ex- 
plains to us how the paralytic, being cured, could, 
at the command of Jesus, so easily take up his bed, 
and go unto his house. Matt. ix. 6, 7 ; Mark ii. 
11, 12. 

9. The most important domestic utensils were a 
mill, a description of which has been given in the 
chapter on Agriculture. There was a benevolent 
law of Moses touching the mill-stones, that they 
should not be taken in pledge ; " for he taketh a 
man's life in pledge," (Deut. xxiv. 6) inasmuch 
as they were essential to the preparation of the 



DWELLINGS AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 67 

daily food for himself and family. Christians may 
be profited by considering the humanity of this 
law. Kneading-troughs are mentioned in Exod. 
xii. 34, being, probably, small wooden bowls, 
which might also be used for dishes, as with 
the Arabs. 

10. Their ovens were of different kinds, perma- 
nent or portable. Of the first, one was a hole dug 
in the earth, and paved at the bottom with smooth 
stones. This was heated, the fire removed, and 
the cakes placed on the stones. A portable oven 
was an earthen vessel like a large pitcher, the fire 
being put inside, and the dough spread in a thin 
paste on the outside, where it was almost instantly 
baked. Owing to the scarcity of Fuel, they re- 
sorted to every thing that could be burned, as the 
prunings of vines, stubble, grass, bones of animals, 
the dried dung of cows, camels, &c. Matt. vi. 30 3 
Ezek. iv. 15. 

11. A lamp, generally fed with olive oil, was an 
important article in the housekeeper's collection, 
and was kept burning the whole night in the room 
where the family slept. " The bed-chambers of 
the East are never dark," says Brown, " for every 
inhabited bed-room is lighted by a lamp, and the 
poorest people would rather retrench part of their 
food, than neglect it. Hence, to put out a man's 
light, was a figure expressive of calamity and deso- 
lation. " The light of the wicked shall be put 
out, the light shall be dark in his taberna- 
cle. 35 Job xviii. 5, 6. 



68 DWELLINGS AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 

12. This custom of burning a lamp through the 
night, and the practice of grinding morning and 
evening, the sound of which was heard from every 
quarter of the city, have furnished the prophet 
with a very significant and touching figure, with 
which to set forth the utter ruin and desolation 
which God would bring upon Babylon. " I will 
take from them the voice of mirth, the voice of the 
bridegroom, and the voice of the bride, the sound 
of the mill-stones, and the light of the candle." Jer. 
xxv. 10 ; Rev. xviii. 22. 



Questions on Chapter VIII. 

1. In what did men live in the earlier ages? To 
whom is the invention of tents ascribed in the Scrip- 
tures ? What followed these ? In what passage does the 
Saviour probably allude to these last ? 

2. 3. Will you give a description of an eastern dwell- 
ing ? Was there a law respecting the battlements or bal- 
ustrade ? (Deut. xxii. 8.) How was the court protected? 
What is said of the stairs ? To what part of the house 
did the stairs lead ? What passage in the gospel history 
is explained by these particulars ? Describe the action. 

4. What have you to say of the roof? Give an ex- 
ample of sleeping on the roof. Did they ever eat on the 
house-top ? Give some examples of devotional exercises 
on the house-top. 

5. 6. What is said of the roofs on festal occasions ? 
Give an example. What do you infer from Matt. x. 27 ? 
What similar custom exists among the Turks or Moham- 



DWELLINGS AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 69 

medans ? What have you to say of Catherwood's Pan- 
orama, touching this subject ? Does this represent Jeru- 
salem in its present state ? What is said of houses in the 
cities ? How does this illustrate Christ's exhortation to 
his disciples (Matt. xxiv. 17.) ? 

7. 8. What did the Jews use for seats ? Describe the 
divan. How was this covered ? What passages seem to 
allude to this ? What is the expression a sewing pillows 
to armholes" significant of? Describe their beds. What 
language of Christ does this explain ? 

9. 10. What law was there in reference to the mill- 
stones ? Why was this a benevolent law ? What were 
the kneading-troughs ? Describe their ovens. Had they 
any other kind? Describe a portable oven, and the 
method of baking with it ? What is said of fuel ? Repeat 
the passage in Matt. vi. 30. 

11. What is said of the lamp ? What does Brown say 
of the bed-chambers of the East ? What does the expres- 
sion, " putting out a man's light," signify ? What is the 
substance of paragraph 12, touching the " taking away of 
the sound of the mill-stones," and "the light of the can- 
dle" ? Repeat the passage quoted from Jeremiah. 



70 MEALS AND ENTERTAINMENTS. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Meals and Entertainments. 

1. The food of the Jews was in the early ages 
of the most simple kind, consisting principally of 
vegetables, milk, honey, bread, and flesh. Gen. 
xviii. 6, 7. Among the poorer classes, locusts were 
eaten. Matt. iii. 12. They are a very common 
article of food with the Arabs of this day. A con- 
densed view of the articles of general consumption 
may be gathered from 1 Sam. xxv. 18 ; 2 Sam. xvi. 
1 ; xvii. 28, 29. Their methods of preparing food 
were various, as with us, — roasting, baking, boil- 
ing, frying, &c. 

2. Their drink was water ; milk ; wine (Isa. 
lv. 1) ; mixed wine (Prov. xxiii. 30 ; Isa. v. 22.), that 
is, wine made stronger and more intoxicating by 
the addition of powerful ingredients ; and ferment- 
ed liquors, extracted from grain, apples, honey, 
dates, &c, and termed strong drinks in Levit. x. 9 ; 
Prov. xx. 1 ; Luke i. 15. Respecting these intoxi- 
cating drinks, let us remember the warning of the 
prophet, " Woe unto them that are mighty to 
drink wine, and men of strength to mingle strong 
drink" (Isa. v. 22.). for "at the last it biteth like 
a serpent, and stingeth like an adder." Prov. xxiii. 
29-32. 

3. With us the most important meal is the din- 



MEALS AND ENTERTAINMENTS. 71 

ner, but with the Jews it was supper. All their 
great entertainments and feasts were suppers, and 
were provided in the evening. Hence, " Herod 
on his birthday made a supper to his lords," &c. 
Mark vi. 21. So in the parable, " a certain man 
made a great supper." Luke xiv. 16. And when 
Jesus visited Lazarus and his sisters, " they made 
him a supper." John xii. 2. 

4. Both before and after meals, it was customary 
to wash the hands. " The Pharisees, and all the 
Jews, except they wash their hands oft, eat not." 
Mark vii. 3, 4. On this account they complained 
to the Saviour, that his disciples neglected it, — 
" Why do thy disciples transgress the tradition of 
the elders ? for they wash not their hands when 
they eat bread." Matt. xv. 2. As these washings 
were so frequent, vessels of water were usually 
kept ready in a convenient place. Such were the 
six water-pots at the marriage of Cana, which 
"were set there after the manner of the purifying 
(washing) of the Jews." John ii. 6. 

5. It was also a custom before and after meals to 
offer a short prayer of thanks or blessing. The 
form before eating was thus, — " Blessed art thou, 
our God, king of the universe, who bringest bread 
out of the earth," — and after eating, — " Blessed 
be our God, the king of the universe, the creator 
of the fruit of the vine." Christ followed this cus- 
tom, as appears from Matt. xiv. 19 ; Mark viii. 6, 7 
It seems to be alluded to in the way of approval^ 
in 1 Cor. x. 31 ; 1 Thess. v. 18 ; 1 Tim. iv. 5. 



72 MEALS AND ENTERTAINMENTS. 

6. At their meals the richer classes reclined on 
couches, or sofas, especially prepared for the pur- 
pose, resting at full length, leaning on the left arm, 
with their heads towards the table, and their feet 
extending outward from it. Esth. i. 6 ; Ezek. xxiii. 
41 5 Amos vi. 4, 7. The table was composed of 
three narrow tables, placed together so as to form 
a square, with one end open, for the servants to 
enter with the dishes and food to supply the 
guests. 

7. This custom shows us how Mary anointed 
the feet of Jesus, and wiped them with her hair, 
(John xii. 2, 3) ; not by getting under the table, 
but by going behind the couch on which he re- 
clined. It enables us to understand how John 
leaned on the Saviour's bosom. John xiii. 23, 25. 
It throws light also on the origin of the figure 
which represents Lazarus as being in Abraham's 
bosom (Luke xvi. 23) ; and on the words of 
Christ, " No man hath seen God at any time ; the 
only begotten Son, which is in the bosom of the 
Father, he hath declared him." John i. 18. The 
expression is significant of intimate acquaintance 
and familiarity, and of personal regard and affec- 
tion toward him who is thus received into the 
bosom. 

8. Knives and forks, and plates, were not used 
in eating. If the company was small, they all eat 
from one dish ; but if large, several dishes were 
provided. u They all helped themselves," says 
Jowett, " from the dish, in which it was no un- 



MEALS AND ENTERTAINMENTS. 73 

common thing to see more than five Arabs' fingers 
at one time. Their bread, which is extremely 
thin, tearing and folding up like a sheet of paper, 
is used for the purpose of rolling together a large 
mouthful, or sopping up the fluid and vegetables. 55 
" And when the master of the house found any 
dainty morsel in the dish, he took it out and ap- 
plied it to my mouth. 55 This custom happily ex- 
plains the reply of Jesus, as to who should betray 
him, — " He that dippeth his hand with me in the 
dish." Matt. xxvi. 23. " He it is to whom I shall 
give a sop, when I have dipped it" John xiii. 26. 

9. Social feasts were very common among the 
Jews ; and indeed something like these seem to be 
required by the law of Moses (Deut. xii. 17, 18. 
xiv. 22-29), to which "the stranger, and the 
fatherless, and the widow, within the gates, shall 
come, and shall eat and be satisfied. 55 They were 
required to set apart a tenth of the produce of their 
lands and flocks for this purpose. On particular 
festal occasions, it was customary to appoint a 
governor of the feast, whose duty it was to preserve 
order, direct the servants, and regulate the whole 
ceremony of the table. This person is mentioned 
in John ii. 8. 

10. When the company was large, many rooms 
were occupied by the guests ; and it seems that 
they were, on some occasions, distributed in these 
according to their rank. Hence Christ says, " Be- 
ware of the Scribes, which desire the chief rooms 
at feasts." Luke xx. 46. And when he saw that 

7* 



74 MEALS AND ENTERTAINMENTS. 

the lawyers and Pharisees " chose out the chief 
rooms, 55 he put forth the following parable : 
" When thou art bidden of any man to a wedding 
(marriage-feast), sit not down in the highest room ; 
lest a more honorable man than thou be bidden of 
him, and he that bade thee and him come and say 
to thee, Give this man place, and thou begin with 
shame to take the lowest room. But, when thou 
art bidden, go and sit down in the lowest room ; 
that when he that bade thee cometh, he may say 
unto thee, Friend, go up higher ; then shalt thou 
have worship in the presence of them that sit at 
meat with thee." Luke xiv. 7-11. 

11. I have quoted this parable entire, because it 
finds so perfect an illustration in the following ex- 
tracts, and because, by comparing the two, we see 
the unchanging and almost unchangeable character 
of eastern manners and customs. " I was once 
present," says Roberts, " at the marriage feast of 
a person of high caste, — the ceremonies were fin- 
ished, and the festivities had commenced, but just 
before the supper was announced, it was discover- 
ed, that one of the guests was not quite equal in 
rank to those in the same apartment. A hint was, 
therefore, given him to leave the room, but he re- 
fused : the host was then called ; but, as the guest 
was scarcely a grade lower than the rest, he felt 
unwilling to put him out. The remainder, there- 
fore, consisting of the first men in the town, imme- 
diately rose and left the house. 55 Morier furnishes 
another instance. " When the assembly was near- 



MEALS AND ENTERTAINMENTS. 75 

ly full, the governor of Kashan, a man of humble 
mien, though of considerable rank, came in, and 
had seated himself at the lowest place, when the 
Ameen-ad-Dowlah, after having testified his par- 
ticular attentions to him by numerous expressions 
of welcome, pointed to an upper seat in the assem- 
bly, to which he desired him to move, and which 
he accordingly did. 55 

12. The Saviour closes the parable thus : " For 
whosoever exalteth himself shall be abased ; and 
he that humbleth himself shall be exalted. 55 May 
we give heed to this, desiring to have praise of 
God rather than of man, and seeking, not the hon- 
ors of the world, but the honors which wisdom and 
virtue bestow upon their followers. 

13. Figures and imagery, drawn from feasts, 
abound in the Scriptures. We can refer only to 
one or two examples. Solomon represents Wis- 
dom, as having made a feast, — " She hath killed 
her beasts ; she hath mingled her wine ; she hath 
also furnished her table. She crieth upon the high 
places of the city 55 to the "simple 55 and to " him 
that wanteth understanding, 55 " Come, eat of my 
bread, and drink of the wine which I have min- 
gled. 55 Prov. ix. 1-5. So Isaiah represents the 
Gospel, under the figure of " a feast of fat things, 
of wines on the lees, 55 made " unto ail people. 55 
xxv. 6. See also chap. lv. 1, where it is " wine 
and milk, without money and without price. 55 So 
Christ, in Matt. xxii. 2-4 ; Luke xiv. 15- 17; xiii. 
29. " Sit down, 55 or recline, as at table, xxii. 
29, SO. 



76 MEALS AND ENTERTAINMENTS. 



Questions on Chapter IX. 

1. 2. What is stated of the food of the Jews ? What 
of locusts ? Can you give the substance of 2 Samuel 
xvii. 28, 29? What were their methods of preparing 
food ? What is said of drinks ? What was their mixed 
wine ? From what were their fermented liquors ex- 
tracted ? What is the warning of the prophet respecting 
wine and strong drinks ? Is this warning needed at the 
present day ? 

3. 4. What was the principal meal with the Jews ? 
Give some examples of these entertainments from Scrip- 
ture. What is said of their washings ? (Mark vii. 3, 4.) 
Why did they complain of the disciples of Jesus ? Re- 
peat the passage containing their complaint. What is 
said of the water-pots ? 

5. What is said of thanks or blessing at the table? 
Can you give nearly the form ? Did the Saviour ever ob- 
serve this custom ? Does the practice seem to be ap- 
proved in Scripture ? 

6. 7. 8. Describe the manner of reclining at table. 
Describe the table. How do these facts explain the 
anointing of Jesus' feet by Mary ? How John's leaning 
on the Saviour's bosom ? What is the meaning of the 
expression " in the bosom," or " resting in the bosom" ? 
Give an example. Explain more fully what Christ 
intended by saying he was in the bosom of the Father. 
What is said of knives, forks, dishes, &c. ? What says 
Jowett of the practice of eating with the fingers ? What 
of their bread ? What language of Jesus does this ex- 
plain ? 

9-12. What is said of their social feasts ? What por- 



MEALS AND ENTERTAINMENTS. 77 

tion of their produce were they required to appropriate to 
this purpose ? What is stated respecting the governor of 
the feast? On what festal occasion, recorded by John, is 
this person mentioned ? When the company was large 
what was done ? In what parable does Christ allude to 
this ? Give the substance of the parable. What is the 
substance of the extract in illustration of this ? What is 
the testimony of Morier ? What is the lesson taught to 
us in the close of the parable ? 

13. What is said of figures drawn from festal occa- 
sions? Give the example from Prov. ix. 1-5. What do 
you understand by the feast which Wisdom prepared ? 
What part of man is fed and strengthened by the food 
which Wisdom furnishes ? Repeat the passage from 
Isaiah xxv. 6. What is represented here under the figure 
of a feast? Give the passage from lsa. lv. 1. What is 
its meaning? What is the parable in Luke xiv. 15-24? 
Can you give its general meaning ? Who were they that 
were first bidden, and refused ? Who are represented by 
" the poor, the halt, the maimed, and the blind" ? , 



78 DRESS. 

CHAPTER X. 
Dress, fyc. 

1. The dress of the Jews may properly be di- 
vided into the under and upper garments. The 
under garment, or tunic, was worn next to the 
skin, and reached down, like a frock, below the 
knees. It had arm-holes, and sometimes sleeves. 
At first, it fitted tolerably close round the body, but 
at a later period, it was made larger, and hung 
more loosely about the person. When engaged, 
therefore, in any active employment, it was neces- 
sary to pass a girdle round the loins, to prevent the 
hindrance arising from the loose drapery of the 
dress. Hence the Saviour, when he washed the 
disciples' feet, having laid aside his upper garment, 
"took a towel, and girded himself." John xiii. 4. 
See, also, 1 Kings xviii. 46 ; Luke xvii. 8 ; Acts 
xii. 8. In this custom, we discover the origin of 
the phrase, "gird up the loins," expressive of a 
state of readiness and preparation. Luke xii. 35 ; 
Eph. vi. 14; 1 Pet. i. 13. 

2. The upper garment was merely a large, and 
perhaps square piece of cloth, several feet in 
length and breadth, something very like a shawl ; 
and was thrown loosely over the shoulders, or 
wrapped around the body. When actively em- 



DRESS. 79 

ployed, this was generally laid aside, as in the case 
of the Saviour's washing the feet of the disciples, 
mentioned above ; and of Peter, when fishing. 
John xxi. 7. This seems to be alluded to, also, in 
Matt. xxiv. 18 Whoever went to work in the 
field, would, of course, leave his upper garment, 
or robe, at home, as he could not well work to ad- 
vantage with it on. The poorer people used it as 
a covering, or blanket, at night ; and, on this ac- 
count, it was forbidden to keep it in pledge after 
sunset. Exod. xxii. 26, 27. 

3. It is worthy of remark, that it was custom- 
ary with the Greeks, Romans, and Jews, to call a 
person naked, who was divested of his upper gar- 
ment, notwithstanding he was clothed in his tunic, 
or under garment. Hence, probably, Isaiah is said 
to have walked naked and barefoot (Isa. xx. 2, 3) ; 
and Saul to have prophesied naked before Samuel 
(1 Sam. xix. 24). This use of terms also explains 
2 Sam. vi. 20, where Michal accuses David of hav- 
ing danced naked before the people. We are not 
to understand, that he was so grossly indecent, as 
to do this absolutely naked, as clearly appears from 
verse 14, but that he had thrown off his upper gar- 
ment. 

4. The sack-cloth, so frequently mentioned in 
Scripture as a garment of mourning, was a coarse, 
rough garment, of goat's hair, or camel's hair, 
made in the form of a sack, without sleeves, and 
was thrown over the person, falling below his 
knees. It was generally black. Hence the figure 



80 DRESS. 

of covering the heavens cc with blackness and sack- 
cloth," (Isa. 1. 3 ;) and of the sun becoming "black 
as sack-cloth of hair." Rev. vi. 12. 

5. The loose and uniform character of these 
garments, being somewhat like our cloaks and 
shawls, only much larger, renders intelligible seve- 
ral facts mentioned in Scripture, which it would 
otherwise be difficult to account for. For exam- 
ple, — Jonathan gave his garments to David, who 
wore them without any change in the way of fit- 
ting. 1 Sam. xviii. 4. So the raiment of Esau was 
put upon Jacob. Gen. xxvii. 15. And presents of 
changes of raiment were made, and immediately 
put on, without alteration. Exod. iii. 22 ; 2 Chron. 
ix. 24 ; Esth. iv. 4. When we consider the loose 
and flowing character of their garments, we readily 
understand how one person's clothes so convenient- 
ly fitted another. 

6. In ancient times, among the easterns, espe- 
cially, splendid dresses, and vast numbers of chan- 
ges of apparel, were indispensable to the idea of 
great wealth, and made a very important part of 
their treasures. A remarkable instance of the ex- 
tent to which this was sometimes carried, is given 
by Horace. Lucullus, who had pillaged Asia, and 
introduced its luxuries into Rome, having been re- 
quested to loan 100 cloaks, or perhaps tunics, for 
the use of the theatre, replied, in a note, that he 
had looked over his wardrobe, and found that he 
had jive thousand, the whole or part of which 
were at their service. 



DRESS. 81 

7. The Scriptures frequently allude to this sort 
of wealth. " Though they heap up silver as the 
dust, and prepare raiment as the clay." Job xxvii. 
16. James specifies garments as part of the treas- 
ures of the rich. " Go to, now, ye rich men, 

your gold and silver is cankered, and your gar- 
ments are moth-eaten." v. 1-3. And this gives a 
clear meaning to the words of the Saviour, record- 
ed in Matt. vi. 19. "Lay not up for yourselves 
treasures on earth, where moth and rust do cor- 
rupt." When we remember, that multitudes of 
garments made a great part of ancient treasures, 
we discover how the moth could destroy them, and 
the passage at once assumes a new beauty and 
force. And let us not forget the exhortation, which 
teaches us not to place our hopes of permanent 
happiness in earthly things, but in God, in truth 
and holiness of heart, for these will never perish, 
nor disappoint us. 

8. Presents of changes of raiment were often 
made as compliments and tokens of respect and 
esteem. Joseph gave his brethren changes of 
raiment, and to Benjamin five changes. Gen. xlv. 
22. Abraham's servant made like presents to Re- 
becca. Gen. xxiv. 53. The several kings, to Solo- 
mon. 2 Chron. ix. 24. A present of a garment of 
many colors, was a token of affectionate regard. 
Gen. xxxvii. 3. Such were worn, also, by persons 
of rank (2 Sam. xiii. 18); as is the case in the East 
to this day. 

9. Another method of showing respect, was to 

8 



82 DRESS. 

spread garments in the way of the person to be 
honored. This practice is still observed in eastern 
countries. Mr. Roberts thus notes it; — (C I was 
not a little surprised, soon after my arrival in the 
East, when, going to visit a native gentleman, to 
find the path through the garden covered with 
white garments. I hesitated, but was told it was 
for c my respect.' I must walk on them, to show 
that I accepted the honor." This is a common 
custom, when a man of rank passes through a 
town or village, and happily illustrates Matt. xxi. 
8, where a " very great multitude spread their gar- 
ments in the way," for the purpose of showing 
their respect for Jesus. 

10. It was customary, among all the eastern 
nations, for women to wear veils, which sometimes 
concealed the whole person, from head to foot. 
This practice still prevails, and it is considered 
now, as it was then, a very immodest and indecent 
thing, for a female to appear in public without a 
veil. To this, Paul alludes (1 Cor. xi. 3-16), and 
reproves the Corinthian women, for appearing in 
the assemblies uncovered in this respect. 

11. For a full description of the ornaments of 
Jewish women, see Isa. iii. 18 - 24 ; Ezek. xvi. 10- 
13. The same practices respecting the adorning 
of the person, and particularly of the head, continue 
in the East to this day. Jovvett, speaking of a lady 
whom he visited, says, — " She produced, from her 
wardrobe, coats of many colors, embroidered and 
spangled with gold and silver and flowers. She 



DRESS. 83 

wears an infinity of braids, which hang down all 
the length of her back, and terminate in gold se- 
quins." Lady Mary W. Montague informs us, that 
the Turkish ladies wear their hair " hanging at full 
length behind, divided into tresses, braided with 
pearls or ribands. I counted, in one lady's hair, 
110 of these tresses, all natural.' 5 These authori- 
ties furnish a fine illustration of 1 Tim. ii. 9 ; 1 Pet. 
iii. 3. Let the " women adorn themselves in mod- 
est apparel, not with broidered hair, or gold, or 
pearls, or costly array." Let us heed the exhorta- 
tion, and seek only the ornament of good works, 
of a meek, quiet, and virtuous life. 

12. To arrange all their finery with effect, mir- 
rors were necessary. These were not of glass, (for 
the making of looking-glasses is a modern inven- 
tion,) but of polished metal. Hence the mirrors 
(absurdly translated, " looking-glasses,") of the 
women, were melted to make the brazen laver. 
Exod. xxxviii. 8. Paul alludes to these in 1 Cor. 
xiii. 12. " We see through a glass darkly," — lit- 
erally, "by means of a mirror." 

13. The sandals, or shoes, worn by the Jews, 
were only soles of skin, or leather, covering the 
bottom of the foot, and fastened by latchets, or 
straps, passing over the foot and around the ankle. 
They wore no stockings. Hence the necessity of 
frequently washing the feet. Gen. xviii. 4 ; xix. 2. 
On entering a house, it was customary to take off 
the sandals, and, leaving them at the door, or other 
appointed place, to go in with bare feet. This was 



84 DRESS, 

especially the case, when entering the house of a 
person of distinction, as a mark of respect ; and 
also, when entering a sacred place. Josh. v. 15. 
The same custom prevails among the Mohamme- 
dans ; and at the doors of the Indian temples, in the 
East, sandals and slippers are hung up, as hats 
and cloaks are with us, and one has but to count 
the sandals, to know the number of worshippers 
within. 



Questions on Chapter X. 

1. 2. How was the dress of the Jews divided ? De- 
scribe the under garment. How was it disposed of when 
at work? Give an example. " Gird up the loins," was 
employed as a figure of what? Repeat 1 Peter i, 13. 
Describe the upper garment. Was this worn when ac- 
tively employed? How does this explain Matt. xxiv. 18? 
For what other purpose was this used by the poorer peo- 
ple ? What was the law respecting this ? 

3. 4. 5. What is said of the term naked? Can you 
give some examples ? What is the proof from verse 14 
of 2 Sam. vi., that David was not entirely naked ? What 
have you to say of the sack-cloth ? W r hat was the usual 
color ? What figures are borrowed from this ? What is 
said of the loose character of the Jewish garments ? Give 
some of the examples named in the text, and explain. 

6. 7. What is said of splendid dresses and numerous 
changes of apparel ? What remarkable example is men- 
tioned ? Give examples of allusions to this idea of treas- 
ures in the Scriptures. In what language does Christ 



DRESS. 85 

allude to this ? What do you understand by the moth's 
corrupting treasures ? What important lesson is taught 
us by the exhortation ? What is meant by treasures in 
heaven ? 

8. 9. 10. What is said respecting presents of changes 
of raiment ? Give examples from Scripture. What did 
Joseph signify to Benjamin, by giving him more changes 
than the rest? What is said of garments of many colors ? 
Does this custom exist now, and where ? What other 
method of showing respect, by means of garments, is men- 
tioned ? Give an instance. Is this practised in the East 
now ? What event in the gospel history is illustrated by 
this custom ? What have you to say of veils ? What of 
appearing in public without veils ? Does Paul refer to 
this, how, where ? 

11. 12. 13. What are the principal ornaments mention- 
ed in lsa. iii. 18-24? What is the substance of Jowett's 
testimony respecting the ornaments of an eastern lady ? 
What does Lady Mary W. Montague say, touching the 
head-dresses of the Turkish ladies ? What passages are 
illustrated by these extracts ? What instruction should 
we gather from this passage ? What is said of mirrors ? 
Give the example from Exod. xxxviii. 8. What is the 
literal meaning of Paul's language, — " We see through a 
glass darkly" ? What were the sandals, or shoes, worn 
by the Jews ? What is said of stockings ? When did 
they take off their shoes ? Why ? What people have a 
similar custom at this day ? 



8* 



86 FORMS OF SALUTATION. 

CHAPTER XL 

Forms of Salutation. Hospitality. 

1. The forms of salutation, among the Jews, 
were, in early times, as appears from the Old Tes- 
tament, very simple and beautiful ; — The Lord be 
with thee, — The Lord bless thee, — Peace be with 
thee ; and, on entering a house, — Peace be in this 
house. Judges xix. 20 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 6 ; Ruth ii. 4 3 
Ps. cxxix. 8 ; Luke x. 5. 

2. It appears, however, that in time, they be- 
came very lengthy and tedious. For the formality, 
extreme length, and repetition of their salutations, 
the easterns have, indeed, ever been remarkable. 
It was on this account, that Elisha charged his ser- 
vant, Gehazi, when sent to restore the son of the 
Shunammite woman, — "If thou meet any man, sa 
lute him not ; and if any man salute thee, answer 
him not again." 2 Kings iv. 29. For the same reason 
the Saviour said to the seventy disciples, when he 
sent them on their mission, — "Salute no man by 
the way." Luke x. 4. Neither Christ nor Elisha 
intended, that those to whom this charge was 
given, should be rude or uncivil, but only that they 
should waste no time in useless ceremonies, but 
hasten, with all expedition, to the performance of 
the work allotted them. 



HOSPITALITY. 87 

S. The heartless character and unmeaning fri- 
volity, into which these salutations degenerated, is 
beautifully alluded to by Christ, in his comforting 
address to the disconsolate disciples, when an- 
nouncing to them his departure ; — " Peace I leave 
with you, my peace I give unto you : not as the 
world giveth, give I unto you." John xiv. 27. " Not 
as the world giveth," — not in the mechanical and 
unmeaning manner in which the crowd repeat 
their salutations, but sincerely and affectionately 
do I desire and pray for your peace and happi- 
ness. 

4. When the person was of rank, or of great 
consequence, prostration was a common way of 
showing respect. It is a universal practice at the 
present day, in the East. The wise men, who 
came to see the child Jesus, fell down and wor- 
shipped him (Matt. ii. 2, 11) ; as did many who 
came to him during his ministry, — the leper, in 
Matt. viii. 2 ; the woman of Canaan, xv. 25 ; the 
demoniac, Mark v. 6 ; and the Jews mocked him 
in this manner, xv. 19. In the same way, the ser- 
vant paid respect to his master, Matt, xviii. 26 ; 
and Cornelius to Peter, Acts x. 25. The simple 
meaning of the word, rendered worship, is that of 
respect and deference due to a superior, implying, 
perhaps, the act of prostration, though not always 
accompanied with this. See Luke xiv. 10, 

5. The eastern nations have ever been distin- 
guished for their remarkable hospitality. In re- 
ceiving strangers, it was customary to bring water 



S3 FORMS OF SALUTATION. 

to wash their hands and feet. Gen. xviii. 4 ; xix. 2. 
The head was also sometimes anointed with oil 
and perfume. Psalm xxiii. 5. Friends were accus- 
tomed to kiss each other on meeting. Gen. xxxiii. 
4 ; xlv. 14 ; Luke xv. 20. These various practices 
are set forth in a very lively manner, in the Sa- 
viour's reply to the Pharisee, at whose house he 
tarried when Mary Magdalene anointed his head 
with the precious ointment. " He turned to the 
woman, and said unto Simon, Seest thou this wo- 
man ? I entered into thy house, and thou gavest 
me no water for my feet, but she hath washed my 
feet with her tears, and wiped them with the hairs 
of her head. Thou gavest me no kiss ; but this 
woman, since I came in, hath not ceased to kiss ?ny 
feet. Mine head with oil thou didst not anoint, but 
this woman hath anointed my feet with ointment." 
Luke vii. 37-46. So David expresses his sense 
of God's goodness and attention to his wants, by 
figuratively saying, that he had anointed his head 
with oil. Psalm xxiii. 5. 

6. The custom of taking off the shoes, or san- 
dals, which were only soles of leather, fastened to 
the feet by strings or straps, and of washing the 
feet of guests, illustrates other passages. This was 
the work of servants (1 Sam. xxv. 41). The sig- 
nificancy of John Baptist's declaration respecting 
Christ, is, therefore, very plain. " Whose shoes I 
am not worthy to bear" (Matt. iii. 11), — "whose 
shoe latchet I am not worthy to stoop down and 
unloose" (Mark i. 7). — setting forth his own infe- 



HOSPITALITY. 89 

riority, when compared with the Messiah, which 
was so great, that he was scarcely worthy to be his 
servant. The same custom will beautifully explain 
the intention of the Saviour, in washing and wiping 
the disciples' feet, on the occasion of the last sup- 
per. John xiii.4-17. As if he would say to them ; 
If I am willing to do the work of a servant for you, 
be ye also willing to be servants to each other, and 
to the world ; ready always to do the humblest offi- 
ces of love. And what a lesson of humility and 
faithfulness is here presented to us by the Saviour. 
May the Lord enable us to learn and practise it. 

7. Brown, in his Antiquities of the Jews, says, 
"The anointing of the hair of the head, and beard, 
with oil, makes an essential part of their daily 
dress, whilst neglecting them is considered as ex- 
pressive of sorrow." This will be seen from Dan- 
iel x. 3. In his affliction, he says, " Neither did I 
anoint myself at all, till three whole weeks were 
fulfilled." This fact renders intelligible a passage, 
that, without this knowledge, has no meaning. 
" When thou fastest, anoint thy head, and wash 
thy face, that thou appear not unto men to fast." 
Matt. vi. 16. That is, do not neglect your daily wash- 
ing and anointing, and put on a dirty and slovenly 
appearance, that you may seem to be very sorrowful 
and penitent, and thus attract the attention of the 
multitude ; but fast in reality, and be contrite and 
humble in heart, and not in appearance. Let us 
learn a lesson here, also, and be taught of the Sa- 
viour to avoid all pretence and hypocrisy, and be 



90 FORMS OF SALUTATION. 

sincerely religious, and God, who seeth the heart, 
will give us our reward. 

8. The eastern people, as before remarked, have 
always been celebrated for their hospitality. The 
duties of hospitality were enjoined upon the Jews 
by divine authority. " If thy brother be waxen 
poor, and fallen in decay with thee, then thou shalt 
relieve him ; yea, though he be a stranger or a so- 
journer, that he may live with thee Thou 

shalt not give him thy money on usury, nor lend him 
thy victuals on increase." Levit. xxv. 35 - 37. This 
is a noble feature in the laws of Moses. And it is 
worthy of remark, that Christ, in setting forth the 
destruction coming upon the Jews, describes their 
wickedness and unfaithfulness under the general 
representation of their having neglected and re- 
fused to perform the duties of hospitality. " De- 
part from me, ye cursed for I was an hun- 
gered, and ye gave me no meat ; I was thirsty, and 
ye gave me no drink ; I was a stranger, and ye took 
me not in " ; &c. Matt. xxv. 41 - 46. 

9. Many worthy examples of hospitality are re- 
corded in the Scriptures. Abraham, Gen. xviii. 
1 - 8. Lot, Gen. xix. 1-3. David, 2 Sam. vi. 19. 
Nehemiah, Neh. v. 17, 18. The first Christians, 
Acts ii. 45, 46. Lydia, Acts xvi. 15. &c. The 
Christian Scriptures earnestly urge upon us the 
duties of hospitality. " Use hospitality one to 
another, without grudging." 1 Pet. iv. 9. ff Be not 
forgetful to entertain strangers." Heb. xiii. 2. See, 
also, Rom. xii. 13, 20. Luke xiv. 13. Let us, 



HOSPITALITY. 91 

therefore, as disciples, obey these injunctions, espe- 
cially those in Luke xiv. 12, 13 ; and thus, accord- 
ing to the exhortation of James, "show our faith 
by our works." ii. 18. 

10. In this respect, we should be influenced, 
also, by the " divine hospitality." God is good 
unto all, and his tender mercies are over all his 
works. He gives air, and sunshine, and rain, to 
all men liberally, and upbraideth not. And espe- 
cially has he bestowed on all great gifts, and ex- 
ceeding riches in Christ Jesus, and that, even, 
while they were sinners. Let us bring all these 
considerations together, remembering, at the same 
time, that God has enjoined upon us to be kind one 
to another, and then ask ourselves if we can find it 
in our hearts to be selfish and inhospitable. 



Questions on Chapter XI. 

1. 2. 3. What is said of the forms of salutation among 
the Jews in early times ? Can you give some examples ? 
On entering a house, what was the salutation, or benedic- 
tion ? Did this simplicity continue ? What did Elisha 
say to his servant, touching this, when he sent him to re- 
store the son of the Shunammite woman ? What was the 
charge of the Saviour to his seventy disciples, in regard to 
this ? What did Christ and Elisha intend by these exhor- 
tations ? On what occasion, and in what language, does 
the Saviour allude to the heartless character of Jewish sal- 
utations ? What did he mean by this language ? 



92 FORMS OF SALUTATION. 

4. 5. When the person was of rank, what was a com- 
mon way of showing respect ? Where is this still prac- 
tised ? What examples can you give from Scripture, in 
which respect was shown to Christ in this way ? What 
other examples are mentioned ? What is the meaning of 
the word worship, when used in this way ? What is the 
passage referred to, — Luke xiv. 10 ? What is the obvi- 
ous meaning of worship, here ? What is said of eastern 
hospitality ? W T hat was first done in receiving strangers ? 
Why ? (See paragraph 13 of the chapter on Dress.) What 
other attention is mentioned ? What is said of kissing ? 
Give one of the examples referred to. What passage of 
gospel history gives a lively representation of these hospi- 
talities ? Repeat it, or the substance of it. What does 
David intend, by saying, that God had anointed his head 
with oil ? Whence is this figure drawn ? 

6. 7. Whose work was it to take off the shoes and 
wash the feet of the guests ? How does this illustrate the 
language of John Baptist, that he was " not worthy to un- 
loose the shoes" of Christ ? What other circumstance, in 
the gospel history, is explained by this custom ? What 
did Christ intend by this act ? What lesson ought we to 
learn from it ? What does Brown say, of the practice of 
anointing the head ? What idea did Daniel convey, by 
saying, that he had not anointed himself for three whole 
weeks ? In what language does the Saviour allude to this 
custom ? What do you understand by this passage ? 
What instruction is set forth in this language of 
Christ ? 

8. 9. 10. On what authority were the duties of hospi- 
tality enjoined upon the Jews ? Give the passage, Levit. 
xxv. 35 - 37. What have you to say of this law ? In 
what way does Christ, when setting forth the destruction 
of the Jews, allude to the duties of hospitality? Repeat 



HOSPITALITY. 93 

the passage, in substance. What examples of hospitality- 
are named in the text? How do you know this is a 
Christian duty ? What passages are quoted ? What does 
the Saviour say in Luke xiv. 13, respecting making 
feasts ? What should we learn from this ? What is the 
best evidence of faith, and how should we show it ? By 
what great example should we be influenced in discharg- 
ing the duties of hospitality ? What have you to say of 
the divine beneficence ? What would be the probable 
result of properly considering these things ? 



94 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 

CHAPTER XII. 

Marriage Customs. 

1. Among the Jews marriage was regarded as a 
matter of the greatest moment, and was believed 
to be a religious obligation binding upon all who 
were of a proper age. To remain unmarried, and 
to die without posterity, were subjects of reproach 
on the one hand, and of great grief on the other. 
One strong reason for this state of feeling, was, 
perhaps, the hope cherished by every Jew, that 
the Messiah might come of his line. Whoever, 
therefore, did not marry, or, having married, re- 
mained childless, could have no hope that he 
should be of the favored race or family, to whom 
the promise should be fulfilled. The strength of 
this feeling is well set forth in Isa. iv. 1. " And in 
that day (when multitudes of men should be slain 
in battle), seven women shall take hold of one 
man, saying, We will eat our own bread, and 
wear our own apparel ; only let us be called by 
thy name, to take away our reproach." 

2. In the earliest times it was a common thing 
for a father to choose a wife for his son, and that 
without particularly consulting him. Thus Abra- 
ham, sent his servant to procure a wife for Isaac. 
Gen. xxiv. And when Samson saw a woman 



MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 95 

who pleased him, he requested his father " to get 
her for him to wife." Judg. xiv. 1-3. So also did 
Shechem, in the case of Dinah. Gen. xxxiv. 4. 

3. It appears, also, that marriage was something 
like a business transaction. The husband, instead 
of receiving any thing, was obliged to pay a cer- 
tain sum to the father or family of his wife, in the 
way of purchase. Thus, Shechem bargained with 
Jacob and his sons : " What ye shall say unto me, 
I will give. Ask me never so much dowry and 
gift, and I will give according as ye shall say unto 
me ; but give me the damsel to wife." Gen. xxxiv. 
11, 12. See also the case of Abraham's servant. 
Gen. xxiv. 53 ; 1 Sam. xviii. 25 ; and Hosea iii. 2, 
show that a dowry was generally expected. 
When the person was unable to pay the required 
amount in money, he could with the consent of 
friends, pay for her by a term of service. Hence 
Jacob served seven years for each of his wives. 
Gen. xxix. 16-30. The custom of purchasing 
wives is still continued in the East ; and a father 
of many daughters is considered fortunate, in con- 
sequence of the wealth their marriage dowries will 
bring him. 

4. Polygamy was common ; Lamech had two 
wives (Gen. iv. 19) ; and Jacob, as we have seen, 
married Leah and Rachel. In the time of Solo- 
mon, this practice was carried to a most scanda- 
lous excess. 1 Kings xi. 1-3. The concubines 
mentioned in Scripture, were true and lawful 
wives, but of a lower rank and condition than the 



96 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 

principal wife, or mistress of the family. Their 
children were not always placed on an equal foot- 
ing with those of the chief wives, respecting the 
property of the father, as will appear from Gen. 
xxv. 5, 6. 

5. Females were generally married at the age 
of twelve years. Between the betrothment or en- 
gagement, and the time of actual marriage, there 
was an interval of ten or twelve months, or more, 
during which, the woman remained in her father's 
house. Judg. xiv. 7, 8 ; Deut. xx. 7. She was, 
however, during this time, regarded as the lawful 
wife of the man to whom she had been betrothed, 
and the contract could not be broken, without a 
bill of divorce. Consequently if the woman prov- 
ed unfaithful, she was punished as an adultress. 
Matt. i. 18, 19. 

6. When the time of the marriage arrived, the 
bridegroom presented himself at the house of the 
bride's father, attended by a number of his com- 
panions of like age. The marriage festival then 
commenced, which continued seven days. Hence 
Laban said to Jacob, when he received Leah to 
wife; " Fulfil her week." Gen. xxix. 27. And 
when Samson gave his riddle, he said, " If ye 
can certainly declare it me within the seven days 
of the feast," &c. Judg. xiv. 12. It seems, also, 
that during this festival, the young men and women 
w T ere separated ; the bridegroom and his friends 
amusing themselves in one apartment, and the 
bride and her attendants in another. At Sam- 



MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 97 

son's wedding, it appears, that one method of 
amusement was the proposing and solving enig- 
mas, riddles, &c. Judg. xiv. 12. 

7. On the last day, or rather evening of the fes- 
tival, the bride was conducted with great pomp 
and rejoicing to the house of her husband. The 
character of this scene is well set forth in the 
parable of the ten Virgins. Matt. xxv. 1 -12. And 
this parable, with all its particulars, is happily 
illustrated in the following extract from Ward's 
description of a Hindoo wedding. 

8. " After waiting two or three hours, at length, 
near midnight, it was announced, as if in the very 
words of Scripture, Behold, the bridegroom Com- 
eth, go ye out to meet him. All the persons em- 
ployed now lighted their lamps, and ran with them 
in their hands to fill up their stations in the proces- 
sion. Some of them had lost their lights, and 
were unprepared ; but it was then too late to seek 
them, and the cavalcade moved forward to the 
house of the bride, at which place the company 
entered into a splendidly illuminated area, before 
the house, covered with an awning, where a great 
company of friends, dressed in their best apparel, 
were seated upon mats. The bridegroom was 
carried in the arms of a friend, and placed on a 
superb seat in the midst of the company, where he 
sat a short time, and then went into the house, the 
door of which was immediately shut, and guarded 
by seapoys. I, and others, expostulated with 
the door-keepers, but in vain. Never was I so 

9* 



98 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 

struck with our Lord's beautiful parable, as at 
this moment, — c and the door was shut? " 

9. After the procession had reached the bride- 
groom's house, the remainder of the evening was 
spent in the festivities of the marriage sapper. 
Those who partook of this were expected to ap- 
pear in a wedding garment, which was probably a 
white robe, and was furnished to every guest by 
the bridegroom, or the person who gave the feast. 
To come into the assembly without this, therefore, 
was regarded as an insult to the company, and 
especially to the master of the house. Hence the 
conduct of the man in the parable, who was with- 
out the wedding garment, was inexcusable ; and it 
is well said, when the king asked, "Friend, how 
earnest thou in hither, not having a wedding gar- 
ment " ? that " he was speechless." He knew 
that he could have had a garment if he had ap- 
plied for it, and that it was an insult to appear 
without it, — therefore he had no excuse to offer, 
and he was very properly cast out from the bril- 
liantly illuminated apartment, into outer darkness, 
or the darkness without. The expression cf weep- 
ing, and gnashing of teeth," is descriptive of his 
shame, disappointment, and anger. Matt. xxii. 
2 - 13. See also Zeph. i. 7, 8. It is worthy of no- 
tice, that the custom of furnishing dresses to the 
guests, is still practised at times among the Turks. 
At an entertainment given by the Grand Vizier to 
Lord Elgin, and his suite, pelisses were given to 
all the guests. And it appears from Homer, that 



MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 99 

among the Greeks of olden time, it was a common 
practice. 

10. The expense of these festivals was sometimes 
immense. At a marriage in Constantinople, in 
1612, where the parties were of distinguished rank, 
" presents were given to above 20,000 persons, 
beside the charge of the banqueting stuff, which 
amounted to above 20,000 crowns." Another wri- 
ter on India, says, cc It is impossible to celebrate 
what is called a respectable marriage at a smaller 
expense than £500, and it has been known to ex- 
ceed £12,000." This might be expected, when we 
read in the parable the command of the king to his 
servants, " Go ye into the highways, and as many 
as ye shall find, bid to the marriage," (Matt. xxii. 
9), and remember, that all these were provided 
with wedding garments. In singular harmony with 
this invitation of the king, is the fact mentioned by 
an eastern traveller, that " an Arab prince will 
often dine in the street before his door, and call to 
all that pass, even beggars, in the name of God, 
and they come and sit down to table, and when 
they have done, retire with the usual form of re- 
turning thanks." Luke xiv. 13. While we should 
admire, and, as far as may be, imitate the hospi- 
tality and charity of the Arab prince, we should 
carefully avoid imitating in any degree the folly 
and extravagance set forth in the former part of 
this paragraph. 

11. Allegories and figures founded upon the 
rites and obligations of marriage, abound both in 



100 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 

the Old and New Testament Scriptures. Jehovah 
is represented as married to the Jews or his peo- 
ple. "Turn, O backsliding children, saith the 
Lord, for I am married unto you. 53 Jer. iii. 14. 
" Fear not, for thy Maker is thy husband. 55 Isa. 
liv. 1-6. See also Jer. ii. 2 ; Ezek. xvi. 8-14; 
Isa. lxii. 4, 5 ; Hos. ii. 19, 20. In accordance with 
the same allegorical mode of speaking the trans- 
gressions, and especially the apostasies and idola- 
tries of the Jewish people are represented under 
the figure of violation of the marriage vows, adul- 
tery, playing the harlot, &c. " And I saw, when 
for all the causes whereby backsliding Israel com- 
mitted adultery, she defiled the land, 

and committed adultery with stones and with 
stocks. 55 Jer. iii. 1 - 14. "Thou hast played the 
harlot with many lovers. 55 v. 1. See Ezek. xxiii ; 
Hos. ii. &c. After the same figure, the casting off 
or rejection of Israel is represented as a divorce. 
" I had put her away, and given her a bill of di- 
vorce. 55 Jer. iii. 8 ; Isa. 1. 1. 

12. In the New Testament the same language is 
employed, to set forth the union between Christ 
and his church. The holy Jerusalem is called 
" the bride, the Lamb 5 s wife," Rev. xxi. 2, 9, 10; 
xxii. 17. So in chap. xix. 7 ; " The marriage of 
the Lamb is come, and his wife hath made herself 
ready, 55 — and in verse 9 ; " Blessed are they which 
are called unto the marriage supper of the Lamb.' 5 
This is in harmony with the parable in Matt. xxii. 
2-13, where the Gospel, or the gospel kingdom, is 



MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 101 

represented as a marriage supper, of which the 
faithful followers of Christ partook, while the 
wicked Jews and false professors were cast out. 
See also, Eph. v. 22-33. Let us be faithful and 
devoted disciples of Christ, that we may be admit- 
ted to the marriage supper, the gospel feast, and 
partake of the hopes and joys therein provided for 
every true believer. 



Questions on Chapter XII. 

1. 2. How was marriage regarded among the Jews ? 
What of those who remained unmarried ? What reason 
is mentioned for this feeling ? What passage of Isaiah 
sets forth the strength of this feeling ? In what way was 
a wife selected in early times ? Give an example. How 
did Samson and Shechem proceed, wmen they saw the 
woman they loved ? 

3. 4. In what light did marriage seem to be regarded ? 
What was the husband required to do ? What was the 
language of Shechem to Jacob and his sons, when seeking 
Dinah for a wife ? What other example is named. How 
much did Hosea pay for his wife ? What was done when 
the man was unable to pay money? How long did Jacob 
serve for his wives ? Where is this custom still con- 
tinued ? What is thought of a man who has many daugh- 
ters ? What is said of polygamy ? Name examples. 
How was it in the time of Solomon ? How is the word 
concubines used in the Scriptures ? What is said of the 
children of concubines or inferior wives ? 

5. 6. At what age were females generally married ? 
What is said of the time between betrothment and actual 



102 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 

marriage ? How was she regarded by law and custom 
during this interval ? When the time of marriage arrived 
what took place ? How long did the marriage festival 
continue ? What instances are mentioned as proof of 
this ? How were the parties disposed of during this 
time? What method of amusement was practised at 
Samson's wedding ? Can you give the substance of the 
riddle ? 

7, 8. 9. What occurred on the last day or evening of 
the festival ? In what parable is this scene well set forth ? 
Can you give the substance of the extract illustrative of 
this parable ? What took place after the procession 
reached the house ? What is said respecting the dress of 
those who partook of this ? By whom was this furnish- 
ed ? In what light was the conduct of those who entered 
without a wedding garment regarded ? Will you explain 
the reason of the confusion of the man who had not on a 
wedding garment in the parable of the marriage supper ? 
Why was he treated with such severity ? What is meant 
by outer darkness ? What is the meaning o£ the phrase 
" weeping and gnashing of teeth" ? Who are represented 
by the man without a wedding garment? Can you give 
a modern example of furnishing guests with dresses ? 
Among what ancient nation beside the Jews was this 
common ? 

10. What is said of the expense of these festivals ? 
What is said of a marriage at Constantinople in 1612? 
What is the substance of the extract touching marriages 
in India ? What passage in Scripture seems to furnish 
an explanation of this ? What custom among the Arabs 
is similar to this ? What do the facts mentioned teach 
us respecting hospitality and charity? 

11. 12. What of allegories and figures derived from 
marriage ? Give an example. How does this seem to 



MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 103 

explain the accusations brought by God against the Jews 
of breaking the marriage vows, playing the harlot, &c. 
Give the quotation from Jeremiah. What is the meaning 
of the passage from Jer. iii. 1 ? What is meant by Israel's 
being divorced ? How is the marriage relation employed 
in the New Testament, in the way of figure ? Give some 
passages. What does the marriage supper represent in 
Rev. xix. 9. Matt. xxii. 2-13? What should we learn 
from this ? 



104 THE CONDITION OF CHILDREN AND SLAVES. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

The Condition of Children and Slaves. 

1. Something has already been said touching 
the reproach of being childless, and the sin of re- 
maining unmarried. This feeling received strength 
also from the fact, that it was considered highly 
honorable to have one's name handed down, in a 
long succession of sons, from generation to genera- 
tion. It became, therefore, a matter of great im- 
portance to every one, that the genealogy of the 
house or family should not stop in his person, and 
thus disappoint the hopes of his ancestors, and cut 
off the glory of their name. From this feeling, 
also, came in part the strange custom, which re- 
quired a man to marry his brother's widow, if he 
died without children. Deut. xxv. 5-10: Matt. 
xxii. 23 - 27. 

2. The ceremonies observed on the birth of a 
child, may be learned from Levit. xii. After a 
certain period, the mother was required to make 
an offering of a lamb, and a young pigeon, or a 
turtle-dove ; or, if she were not able to offer a 
lamb, then two turtle-doves, or two pigeons. It 
was an evidence of the poverty of Joseph and 
Mary, that they brought as an offering, on the 
birth of the child Jesus, only "a pair of turtle 
doves, or two young pigeons." Luke ii. 22- 24. 



THE CONDITION OF CHILDREN AND SLAVES. 105 

3. The first-born was entitled to peculiar privi- 
leges. He received a double portion of his father's 
estate. Deut. xxi. 17. He possessed an authority 
similar to that of the father over the younger por- 
tion of the family. That this was of consequence, 
may be gathered from the history of Jacob and 
Esau, especially from the strong desire, and cruel 
conduct, of the former to obtain his brother's 
birthright. Gen. xxv. 27 -34. See also 2 Chron. 
xxi. 3. 

4. These facts will readily explain the manner 
in which first-born came to be used figuratively, to 
signify a person of the highest dignity, or to desig- 
nate any thing of especial importance in its kind. 
The first-born of death (Job xviii. 13), is a death 
of extreme painfullness and suffering. The first- 
born of the poor (Isa. xiv. 30), are the exceedingly 
poor. So to set forth the superiority of Christ, he 
is called the first-begotten of God (Heb. i. 6) ; and 
the first-born of every creature. Col. i. 15. And 
for the same reason his followers are called the 
church of the first-born. Heb. xii. 23. 

5. The authority of the father over his children 
was very great (Gen. xxxviii. 24) ; and the laws 
of Moses, touching the respect and obedience due 
from the child to the parent, are very severe. 
" And he that smiteth his father, or his mother, 
shall surely be put to death." " And he that curs- 
eth his father, or his mother, shall surely be put to 
death." Exod. xxi. 15, 17. And " a stubborn and 
rebellious " child might be put to death, with the 

10 



106 THE CONDITION OF CHILDREN AND SLAVES. 

knowledge and consent of the elders. Deut. xxi. 
18 - 21. This respect toward parents is recognised 
as one of the requirements of the Decalogue, or 
Ten Commandments. Exod. xx. 12. 

6. Servants and slaves. These might be acquir- 
ed, by being taken captive in war (Deut. xx. 14) ; 
by purchase (Levit. xxv. 44, 45) ; by debt (2 Kings 
iv. 1 ; Matt, xviii. 25) ; and by birth, — these last 
being the children of slaves, and termed " home- 
born" (Jer. ii. 14; Gen. xv. 3. xvii. 23). There 
was a law respecting the stealing of slaves to this 
effect : " He that stealeth a man, and selleth him, 
or if he be found in his hand, he shall surely be put 
to death. 55 Exod. xxi. 16. 

7. Gentile slaves might be kept in continual 
bondage, and be transferred in the same manner 
as other property. Levit. xxv. 44-46. But no 
Hebrew slave could be held in bondage for life. At 
the expiration of 6 years he might " go out free 
for nothing 55 (Exod. xxi. 2) ; unless he preferred 
continuing with his master ; in which case, he 
went before the judges, and made declaration that 
he waived the right granted him by the law, and in 
token of this, had his ear bored ; after which, he 
could not recover his liberty until the year of jubi- 
lee. Exod. xxi. 5, 6. When the year of jubilee 
came, all Hebrew slaves went out free, whatever 
the cause of their bondage ; and all service, there- 
fore, was valued accordingly, as it was more or 
less near to this period. Levit. xxv. 40 - 42, 50 - 52. 
If a man entered into servitude with a wife, at the 



THE CONDITION OF CHILDREN AND SLAVES. 107 

end of the six years his wife went out free with 
him ; but if his master gave him a wife during his 
time of bondage, the wife and her children remain- 
ed as the property of the master. Exod. xxi. 3, 4. 

8. There were several very humane laws de- 
signed to protect the slaves from injury and cru- 
elty. The master who should smite his servant, or 
slave, so that he should " die under his hand," 
was to be punished (Exod. xxi. 20, 21) ; probably 
with death. Gen. ix. 5, 6. If a slave lost an eye, 
or a tooth, by a blow from the master, he obtained 
his liberty, v. 26, 27. If a Hebrew became the 
slave of a stranger or Gentile, his relations were 
bound to redeem him, and he was obliged, if able, 
to refund the purchase money. Levit. xxv. 47 - 55. 
There is also a very just and merciful law record- 
ed in Exod. xxi. 7-11. 

9. There are many allusions in the New Testa- 
ment to the customs touching servants or slaves ; 
but these allusions belong rather to slavery as it 
existed among the Greeks and Romans, than as it 
was found among the Hebrews. Paul represents 
himself as the servant, or slave, of Christ, and 
speaks of Christians as being purchased by him. 
To the Corinthians he says : " Ye are not your 
own ; for ye are bought with a price." 1 Cor. vi. 
19, 20; vii. 21-24. 

10. Among the Romans it was common to mark 
or brand slaves with a hot iron, so that they might 
be known as their property. This brand was 
sometimes burned on the hand, but oftener on the 



103 THE CONDITION OF CHILDREN AND SLAVES. 

forehead. There is a reference to this practice in 
Rev. xiii. 16. Cf And he caused all, both small and 
great, rich and poor, free and bond, to receive a 
mark in their right hand, or in their foreheads." 
See likewise ch. xiv. 9. The Apostle Paul seems 
also to allude to this custom, when he says : 
" From henceforth let no man trouble me, for i" 
bear in my body the marks (or brands) of the Lord 
Jesus " (Gal. vi. 17) ; that is, the marks of violence 
and suffering which I have received in my person, 
in consequence of my ministry, show to all that I 
am the servant of the great Master. 

11. Let the example of the Apostle inspire us 
with a holy resolution to be devoted servants of 
the Lord Jesus ; and, remembering that we are 
bought with a price, let us do the work which our 
Master has assigned us with diligence, that we 
may receive the approbation of, " Well done, thou 
good and faithful servant, — enter thou into the 
joy of thy Lord." 



Questions on Chapter XIII. 

1. 2. What is said of those who were childless? Why 
was it matter for joy to be father of a family ? What 
strange custom arose from this feeling ? On what occasion 
was this alluded to in the New Testament ? What offer- 
ing was made by the mother on the birth of a child ? 
What have you to say of the offering made by Mary on 
the birth of the Saviour ? 



THE CONDITION OF CHILDREN AND SLAVES. 109 

3. 4. 4. What is said of the first-born ? What cir- 
cumstances from Scripture can you give in proof of the 
value put upon this ? First-born is used as a figure of 
what? What is meant by the "first-born of death"? 
" First-born of the poor " ? Why is Jesus called the 
" first-begotten of God," — and the "first-born of every 
creature" ? What idea do you associate with the expres- 
sion, " church of the first-born" ? What is said of the 
authority of the father over his children ? Give an ex- 
ample from the law of Moses. What is said of a stubborn 
or rebellious child ? What does the Decalogue say touch- 
ing the respect due to parents ? 

6. 7. 8. How might servants or slaves be acquired ? 
What were those by birth termed ? What was the law 
respecting the stealing of men and selling them for slaves ? 
What is said of Gentile slaves ? What of Hebrew slaves ? 
How long might these be kept in bondage? If he chose 
to remain with his master after the six years were out 
what followed ? What is said of the year of Jubilee. 
Could a Hebrew, holden by a Hebrew, then, be strictly 
called a slave, as that word is now used ? What is said 
of the wife and children of a slave or servant? What is 
said of the laws respecting servants or slaves ? Give ex- 
amples. If a Hebrew became the slave of a Gentile, what 
was required of his relations? 

9. 10. 11. What is said of the allusions to slavery in 
the New Testament ? How does Paul represent himself 
and Christians ? Give an example. What is said of 
marking or branding ? What is the passage from Reve- 
lations, illustrative of this? In what language does Paul 
allude to this ? What is the meaning of the passage ? 
What reflection is suggested by this language touching 
our faithfulness ? 

10* 



110 FUNERAL CUSTOMS. TOMBS. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Funeral Customs. Tombs. 

1. When a person died, some near relative, or 
friend, closed his eyes. Gen. xlvi. 4. The body 
was then washed previous to the preparation for 
embalming, or burial. Acts ix. 37. If it was em- 
balmed, which required considerable time, the bu- 
rial ceremonies were not performed for many days 
or weeks after death. The embalming of Jacob 
occupied forty days, and it was not till thirty days 
after this, that they proceeded to bury him. Gen. 
1. 1-4. 

2. The relations of the deceased expressed their 
grief in various ways, by rending their garments, 
beating their breasts, tearing their hair, putting on 
sackcloth, spreading ashes on the head, &c. It 
was common also to put away all ornaments, and 
neglect the personal appearance, as anointing the 
head, washing, &c. And sometimes they tore the 
face with their nails, and cut their flesh, which 
practice, however, was forbidden, probably be- 
cause it was borrowed from the heathens. Levit. 
xix. 23 ; Deut. xiv. 1, 2; Jer. xlviii. 36, 37. These 
lamentations continued several days, and some- 
times several months, when the person was of 
rank, as appears in the case of Jacob, where the 



FUNERAL CUSTOMS. TOMBS. Ill 

days of mourning were threescore and ten. Gen. 
1. 8. For Aaron and for Moses, they mourned 
thirty days. Numb. xx. 29 ; Deut. xxxiv. 8. 

S. It was the custom also to employ persons, 
generally women, to make lamentations, and do 
the business of mourning on such occasions. This 
practice is still continued in the East. The follow- 
ing is from Jowett's researches. " The governor 
of Nablous had died this very morning, and, on 
coming within sight of the gate, we perceived a 
numerous company of females, who uttered the 
most hideous plaints and shrieks. We learned, in 
the course of the evening, that these were only a 
small detachment of a very numerous body of cun- 
ning women, who were filling the whole city with 
their cries and wailings. For this good service, 
they would the next morning wait upon the gov- 
ernment, and principal persons, to receive some 
trifling fee. 53 " Even the poorest Israelite," says 
Brown, " had two pipers, and one woman to make 
lamentations." 

4. These extracts give a meaning to many pas- 
sages. "Thus saith the Lord of Hosts, Consider 
ye, and call for the mourning women, and send for 
cunning women, — and let them make haste, and 
take up a wailing for us, that our eyes may run 
down with tears," &c. Jer. ix. 17-21 ; xvi. 6,7. 
xlviii. 36, 37 ; Amos v. 16. That these wailings 
were often accompanied with music, may be seen 
from Matt. ix. 23. The children sometimes imi- 
tated these ceremonies in their games, as appears 



112 FUNERAL CUSTOMS. TOMBS. 

from the comparison of the Saviour, in which they 
are represented as complaining of their fellows, 
because they would not perform their part of the 
play. "We have mourned unto you, and ye have 
not lamented. 53 Matt. xi. 16, 17. 

5. We have mentioned the practice of embalm- 
ing. This was sometimes done by the Jews, as 
appears from Gen. 1. 2, 26. " And Joseph com- 
manded his servants the physicians, to embalm his 
father ; and the physicians embalmed Israel" (Ja- 
cob), v. 2. " So Joseph died, and they embalmed 
him. 3 ' v. 26. It appears also to have been the 
intention of Nicodemus, to have embalmed the 
body of the Saviour, as he had brought a prepara- 
tion of " myrrh and aloes, 33 and wound the body 
"in linen clothes with the spices. 33 John xix. 
33-40. And Mary, and the women with her, 
seem to have designed the same, when " very 
early in the morning, they came unto the sepulchre, 
bringing the spices which they had prepared. 3 ' 
Luke xxiv. 1. 

6. To be deprived of burial was regarded by the 
Jews, and by the ancients generally, as a very 
great disgrace and calamity. Eccles. vi. 3. The 
Psalmist counts it among the evils to which the 
people had been subjected. " The dead bodies of 
thy servants have they given to be meat unto the 
fowls of the heaven ; and there was none to bury 
them. 33 Ps. lxxix. 2, 3. Hence it became a reli- 
gious duty, as well as an act of humanity, to bury 
the dead ; and those were uncommonly barbarous 



FUNERAL CUSTOMS. TOMBS. 113 

wars, in which the vanquished were not allowed to 
bury their dead. 1 Sam. xxxi. 8- 13 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 
9-14. The Romans believed that the souls of 
the unburied were compelled to wander a hun- 
dred years along the banks of the river Styx, be- 
fore they were permitted to cross it, and enter the 
abodes of the dead. 

7. The Jews buried in graves, and tombs or 
sepulchres. These sepulchres were often of great 
extent, hewn out of the solid rock, and divided into 
several distinct apartments, which were frequent- 
ly, as among the Egyptians, magnificently orna- 
mented with painting and sculpture. This was 
especially the case with the tombs of persons of 
note, either in a civil or religious respect. To 
this, and to similar exterior elegance the Saviour 
probably alluded, when he said to the Pharisees : 
cc Ye build the tombs of the prophets, and garnish 
the sepulchres of the righteous." Matt, xxiii. 29. 

8, The following is from Hasselquist, in rela- 
tion to the tombs, or sepulchres, of the ancient 
kings of Syria, near Sidon : Ci They are cut out 
of a limestone mountain, and have their aperture 
level with the earth, which in most cases is so 
large, one may enter with ease. They consist of 
vaults or chambers, some fathoms square, worked 
out in the mountain, with oblong niches in the 
walls. A great part of them are now open, and 
serve as huts for shepherds." Rossellini says of 
the sepulchres of Thebes, " In many the pictures 
are perishing day by day, because, having been a 



114 FUNERAL CUSTOMS. TOMBS. 

long time open, they serve for a retreat to the 
Arab families, which have no other cabin to cover 
themselves, and their miserable herds." 

9. These extracts will, perhaps, throw light 
upon Isa. lxv. 4 ; " A people which remain among 
the graves, and lodge in the monuments." They 
also explain how the demoniac " had his dwelling 
among the tombs." Mark v. 2-5. 

10. Any person who stepped upon a grave, or 
touched a tomb, was ceremonially unclean. And 
as those coming to the feasts from a distance, 
could not be expected to be familiar with every 
place where there was a solitary grave or sep- 
ulchre, there was a law which required, that they 
should be painted white, with chalk and water, or 
a similar preparation, on the 15th day of the 12th 
month, which made them perfectly visible, until 
the great festivals were over. To this practice 
Christ alludes, in his rebuke of the Pharisees : 
"Ye are like unto whited sepulchres, which in- 
deed appear beautiful outward, but within are full 
of dead men's bones, and of all uncleanness." 
Matt, xxiii. 27 ; Luke xi. 44. Let us learn from 
this language, to be clean within, as well as with- 
out, — to be pure of heart, that we may have the 
approbation of Him, who knoweth the heart, and 
secure that peace which passeth knowledge. 



FUNERAL CUSTOMS. TOMBS. 115 

Questions on Chapter XIV. 

1-4. What was first done on a person's death ? What 
of the burial, and of embalming ? How long time was 
occupied in embalming ? How did the relations express 
their grief? What is said of tearing the face, &c. ? 
How long did these lamentations continue ? How long 
did they mourn for Jacob ? For Aaron, and Moses ? 
What is said of hiring mourners ? Give the substance of 
the extract from Jowett, illustrative of this practice. 
What says Brown of this custom ? What passage from 
Jeremiah is explained by this custom ? What passage 
leads to the opinion, that music was employed on these 
occasions ? What is said of children imitating these 
practices ? Repeat the passage alluding to this. 

5. 6. Did the Jews ever embalm ? What examples of 
their being embalmed are mentioned ? What is said of 
Nicodemus' intention, respecting the body of Christ ? 
What other instance of like intention is given ? What is 
said of the being deprived of burial ? What says the 
Psalmist of this ? Was it regarded as a duty to bury the 
dead ? What of the wars in which this was not allowed ? 
What superstition had the Romans respecting those who 
were not buried ? 

7-10. Describe the tombs or sepulchres. Whose 
tombs were more especially ornamented ? How does the 
Saviour allude to this? Give the extract from Hassel- 
quist in substance. What does Rossellini say of the Sep- 
ulchres of Thebes ? What passages are illustrated by 
these facts ? What is said of those who touched a grave 
or tomb ? What was the law respecting this matter ? In 
what language does Christ allude to this custom ? What 
important lesson should we learn from this language of 
the Saviour to the Pharisees ? 



116 THE TEMPLE. 

CHAPTER XV. 

The Temple. 

1. Strictly speaking, there were three tem- 
ples ; the one by Solomon, the one built under the 
direction of Zerubbabel, and that erected by Herod 
the Great ; though the Jews, and perhaps the 
Scriptures, recognise but two, the temple by Herod 
being regarded as an enlargement or rebuilding of 
that by Zerubbabel, and so called the second 
temple. 

2. The First Temple. This is properly Solo- 
mon's Temple, the foundation of which was laid 
by him a. m. 2992 $ b. c. 1012. The time occupied 
in building and completing this splendid structure, 
was something between 7 and 8 years, — that is, 
from the period at which its foundation was laid. 
Vast preparations for the building had been made 
before this, both by Solomon and David. It was, 
indeed, the suggestion and plan of David, who 
was not allowed of God to build it himself, but had 
the assurance that his successor should erect it. 
1 Chron. xvii. 1 - 15. The immense wealth, which 
this monarch had made ready for the temple, may 
be partly collected from 1 Chron. xxviii., xxix. 
Having been thus furnished, Solomon began with 
the resolution to make the temple one of the most 
costly and magnificent buildings in the world. 



THE TEMPLE. 117 

S. It was located on Zion, or Mount Moriah, 
and fronted to the East, having a splendid portico, 
which rose to the height of 120 cubits. A descrip- 
tion of this building, our limits will not allow us to 
give. An account of its dedication may be seen 1 
Kings viii. It passed through many changes. It 
was robbed of its treasures by Shishak, king of 
Egypt, only about 33 years after its completion. 1 
Kings xiv ; 2 Chron. xii. e. c. 971. It was once 
stripped of its riches by Hezekiah, even to the gold 
upon its gates and doors, to buy off Sennacherib, 
king of Assyria, from his destructive purposes, b. c. 
713. 2 Kings xviii. 15, 16. And once it was pro- 
faned with the presence and worship of idols. 2 
Kings xxi. It was finally entirely destroyed by the 
Chaldeans, under Nebuchadnezzar, b. c. 588, (2 
Kings xxv. ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 18, 19.) being 415 
years from its dedication. The temple continued 
buried in its ruins for 52 years, when Cyrus gave 
the Jews permission to return from Babylon and 
rebuild it. After various hindrances, this was 
finally accomplished, and the temple dedicated, 
b. c. 515, and 20 years after the return from the 
captivity. Ezra i., iv., v., vi. 

4. The. Second Temple. This, as we have seen, 
was finished b. c. 515. About 350 years after this, 
it was profaned by order of Antiochus Epiphanes, 
and the image of Jupiter Olympus, the chief of the 
heathen gods, was placed upon the altar. After 
three years it was purified by Judas Maccabeus, 
and the worship of Jehovah reestablished, b. c. 
11 



118 THE TEMPLE. 

164. Apoc. 1 Mac. iv. About 20 years before the 
birth of Christ, Herod began to rebuild this temple 
anew, and for nine years employed 18,000 work- 
men upon it, and spared no expense to render it 
one of the most beautiful and magnificent piles in 
the world. But, though the main body of the tem- 
ple was completed in this time, the work was con- 
tinued, in the way of enlarging and beautifying, for 
many years, and even after the Saviour's death ; so 
that the Jews were right in saying, "Forty and six 
years was this temple in building. 53 John ii. 20. 

5. The temple proper, which was composed of 
the portico, the sanctuary, and the holy of holies, 
made but a small part of the sacred edifice. There 
were galleries, cloisters, porticoes, and courts, of 
great extent, and covering, together, a space of 
half a mile in circumference. The entrance w T as 
through nine gates, covered with plates of gold and 
silver. There was also, without the temple, anoth- 
er gate of Corinthian brass, a most valuable metal 
in ancient times, which was much larger than the 
rest, and more splendid in its gold and silver orna- 
ments. This was probably the gate "called Beau- 
tiful" (Acts iii. 2), where Peter and John healed 
the lame man. One of the most celebrated porch- 
es, oi piazzas, was that called Solomon's Porch, 
which stood on a vast terrace, raised from the bot- 
tom of the valley with immense labor, by that an- 
cient monarch. The wall of the porch, and its 
foundation, was from 600 to 700, and some say 750, 
feet from top to bottom. John x. 23 ; Acts iii. 11. 



THE TEMPLE. 119 

6. The courts of the temple, were as follows. 
The Court of the Gentiles came first, and was 
the outer court, encompassing all the others. It 
was enclosed by a wall 25 cubits in height, built 
of stone, and having several gates, one of which 
was the gate of Corinthian brass, already named. 
Along the whole extent of this wall, was built a 
range of piazzas, or galleries, of the same height 
with the wall, supported by pillars of white mar- 
ble, and having the floor, or pavement, of varie- 
gated marble. This court is called the Court of 
the Gentiles, because it was appropriated to their 
use, and beyond this, they were not allowed to 
pass. Hence the fury of the Jews, when they 
supposed Paul had taken Trophimus, who was a 
Greek, into the temple, and thus profaned its sanc- 
tity. Acts xxi. 26, &c. It was here, that the tra- 
ders and money-changers established themselves, 
and hence the Saviour expelled them. Matt. xxi. 
12, 13. 

7. Passing from the Court of the Gentiles, to- 
wards the temple, we come to the Court of the Is- 
raelites, which was divided by a wall into two 
parts, the outer being for the women, and called 
Court of the Women, and the inner for the men. 
In going from the Court of the Gentiles into that of 
the women, there was an ascent of some six cubits. 
Between the Court of the Israelites and the Court 
of the Gentiles, there was a wall of separation, on 
which stood pillars with inscriptions, forbidding all 
entrance to Gentiles of every nation. To this Paul 



120 THE TEMPLE. 

evidently refers, and in a most beautiful manner, in 
Eph. ii. 13, 14. In the Court of the Women, was 
the Treasury, where the people cast in their offer- 
ings, and the widow her two mites, drawing forth 
the words of Christ, recorded in Mark xii. 41-44. 
From the Court of the women to that of the men, 
was an ascent of 15 steps, or 7 J cubits. 

8. Within the Court of the Israelites, was the 
Court of the Priests. Here the priests, with the 
Levites, performed the daily service ; and into this 
inclosure, which was separated from the Court of 
Israel by a low wall, or railing, none but the per- 
sons named were allowed to come, except when 
one who offered a sacrifice came to lay his hands 
upon the victim. Within this court stood the altar 
of burnt-offerings, and the Laver, — and beyond, 
the Holy Sanctuary itself. 

9. The Temple, strictly so called, was divided 
into three parts, — 1. The Portico was 100 cubits 
in extent, from north to south, and 20 from east to 
west ; having a front entrance 70 cubits high, and 
25 broad, which had no door or gate of any kind, 
but was always open. Here were deposited the 
gifts and votive offerings of pious individuals, and 
the presents made to the temple. Among its treas- 
ures was a table of gold, given by the celebrated 
Pompey ; and several beautiful and immensely 
valuable golden vines, of which, according to Jose- 
phus, there were clusters as tall as a man. 2. The 
Sanctuary. This was behind the Porch, and was 
60 cubits in length, 60 in height, and 20 in breadth. 



THE TEMPLE. 121 

S. The Holy of Holies, which was 20 cubits 
square, was separated from the Sanctuary, or Holy 
Place, by a veil, which is supposed to have been 
the veil that was rent in twain at the Saviour's cru- 
cifixion. Matt, xxvii. 51. Into this, no one ever 
entered but the High Priest, and he but once a 
year, when he made an offering for the sins of the 
people. Levit. xvi. ; Heb. ix. x. The Jews say, 
that the Second Temple wanted five important 
things, which belonged to the First, — 1. The Ark. 
2. The Urim and Thummim. 3. The Fire from 
Heaven. 4. The Shechinah, or Divine Presence 
and Glory. 5. The Spirit of Prophecy. 

10. The magnificence and costliness of the tem- 
ple itself, is represented, by Josephus, as exceeding 
description. The vast stones of polished marble, 
some of which, he says, were 45 cubits in length, 
6 in breadth, and 5 in height ; the lofty and stu- 
pendous pillars ; the broad and towering porticoes ; 
the gates and roof, covered with plates of gold ; 
and the magnificent front, all united, filled the be- 
holder with wonder and admiration. And we are 
reminded of the words of one of the disciples, who, 
as he passed out of the temple, or court, said to Je- 
sus, — "Master, see what manner of stones, and 
what buildings are here /" The reply of the Mas- 
ter was, — " Seest thou these great buildings ? 
there shall not be left one stone upon another, that 
shall not be thrown down." Mark xiii. 1,2. As 
improbable as might then seem the fulfilment of 
this prediction, it was, nevertheless, literally ac- 
11* 



122 THE TEMPLE. 

complished, in less than 40 years from the time it 
was spoken. The temple was destroyed by the 
Romans, a. d.70, in the same month, and the same 
day of the month, which, more than 600 years be- 
fore, witnessed the destruction of the first temple, 
by Nebuchadnezzar. After the flames had done 
their work, the walls were demolished, the founda- 
tion dug up, and the ground ploughed over, ac- 
cording to the custom of the Romans, thus verify- 
ing, to the letter, the prophecy of Christ. 



Questions on Chapter XV. 

1. 2. 3. How many temples were there, strictly speak- 
ing? Name them. How many are usually reckoned, 
and why? What is the first temple called, and when 
was it builded ? How long was it in building ? Had 
previous preparations been made, independent of the pe- 
riod named ? What is said of David, respecting the tem- 
ple ? What portion of Scripture furnishes an account of 
the wealth collected for the temple ? What was Solo- 
mon's resolution, touching the character of the temple ? 
Where was it situated? What of the portico? Where 
do you find an account of the dedication ? What is said 
of its being robbed of its treasures, and how long after it 
was finished ? How long was this before Christ ? What 
is said of Hezekiah, respecting the temple ? About what 
time was this before Christ ? What is further said, of its 
profanation ? When was it destroyed, and by whom ? 
How long did this temple stand from its dedication ? 
How long did it continue in ruins ? 



THE TEMPLE. 123 

4. 5. At what period was the second temple builded ? 
How and when was it profaned ? How long did it con- 
tinue in this state ? By whom was it purified ? Where 
do you find an account of this ? Who rebuilt this tem- 
ple ? At what period did he begin the work ? How ma- 
ny workmen did he employ, and how long ? How do you 
reconcile this fact with the statement of the Jews, "Forty 
and six years was this temple in building" ? Of what was 
the temple, strictly speaking, composed? What further 
is said ? Were all these together called the temple, or 
reckoned as a part of it? (Yes, — so that whatever was 
done in the courts, was said to be done in the temple.) 
What is said of the gates of entrance? What gate in 
particular is mentioned ? What miracle was wrought at 
this gate, and by whom? In what chapter of Acts is the 
account given ? What is said of Solomon's Porch ? 

6.7.8. What is said of the Court of the Gentiles? 
What was built along the wall? Why was this called the 
Court of the Gentiles ? What circumstance is mentioned, 
illustrative of this ? What is said of the money-changers, 
&c. ? What court was next within the Court of the Gen- 
tiles ? How was it divided ? How was the Court of the 
Israelites separated from that of the Gentiles ? In what 
epistle, and in what chapter, is there an allusion to this ? 
Repeat the passage. What is its meaning, or what im- 
portant truth does it teach ? What of the Treasury ? 
What is the language of Christ, in Mark xii. 41 - 44 ? 
What court was within that of the Israelites ? What 
was done here ? Who were allowed to enter this ? When 
was an Israelite permitted to enter ? What was within 
this court ? 

9. 10. Describe the Portico of the Temple proper. 
What was deposited here ? What gift is particularly 
mentioned ? Who was Pompey ? What other present is 



124 THE TEMPLE. 

named ? What does Josephus say of it ? What of the 
Sanctuary ? What was the size of the Holy of Holies ? 
What is said of the veil ? Who only entered this, and on 
what occasion ? What five important things were want- 
ing in the Second Temple, that belonged to the First? 
What have you to say of the magnificence and cost of the 
temple ? How large, according to Josephus, were some 
of the stones ? What was the language of one of the dis- 
ciples to Christ respecting the temple, and his reply ? 
How long after was this prediction fulfilled? In what 
year of our Lord? What remarkable circumstance, 
touching the time of its destruction, is mentioned ? 



SACRED PERSONS OF THE TEMPLE. 125 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Sacred Persons of the Temple. 

1. The High Priest was placed over all the 
Temple, and all the persons and things connected 
with it, and enjoyed peculiar dignities, arid exerted 
a very powerful influence, both in a religious and 
political respect ; in later times, at least, presiding 
over the Sanhedrin, and ranking next to the sov- 
ereign or ruler. He had the entire and supreme 
control of the sacred and religious affairs of the 
nation, and in all controversies his decision was 
final, admitting of no appeal. The office of the 
high priesthood, was originally holden for life, 
except in cases of crime, which called for his re- 
moval. It was also hereditary in the family of 
Aaron, at the first. But these established laws 
were trampled under foot, in the later days of Je- 
rusalem, under the Romans ; the dignity and au- 
thority of the High Priest dwindled into a name, 
and his office was sold to the highest bidder, — 
and, as appears from Luke iii. 1, 2, there was 
sometimes more than one High Priest. An ac- 
count of the sacred dress of the High Priest may 
be seen in Exod. xxviii. 

2. Priests. These were of the family of Aaron ; 
and their business was to serve at the altar, pre- 



126 SACRED PERSONS OF THE TEMPLE. 

paring the victims, and performing the duties of 
the sacrifice, — to keep the sacred fire, and take 
care of the lamps, — and to regulate the whole 
ceremony of the temple worship. In the time 
of David, the priests were divided into 24 class- 
es, or courses, which succeeded each other reg- 
ularly, in the performance of the services of the 
sanctuary ; each class serving a week at a time. 
Each, therefore, was engaged only about twice in 
the year, the change being made always on the 
sabbath. 1 Chron. xxiv. 1-19; xxv. Each class 
had a president, — and he appointed a single 
family to perform the daily sacrifice, — but at the 
end of the week, the whole joined together in the 
sacrifice. As there were several members in these 
respective families, it seems that each one had a 
separate duty assigned him by lot. Hence we are 
told of Zacharias (Luke i. 8, 9), that, "According 
to the custom of the priest's office, his lot was to 
burn incense, when he went into the temple of the 
Lord." 

3. Next to the priests, and inferior to them, were 
the Levites. The manner in which they were set 
apart to their ministry, may be seen in Numb. viii. 
The services of the Levites, in regard to the Taber- 
nacle in the wilderness, may be learned from Numb, 
iv. After the Israelites had entered the Promised 
Land, and the temple was erected, other duties 
were assigned to them. David divided them into 
four classes. The first, consisting of 24,000, was 
appointed to assist the priests. The second, of 



SACRED PERSONS OF THE TEMPLE. 127 

6,000, were made judges, and officers, in the land. 
The third, of 4,000, were porters or door-keepers. 
The fourth, amounting to 4,000, were musicians. 
Those who were appointed to aid the priests, and 
to minister at the temple, were divided, as were 
the priests, into 24 classes, or courses, and with 
them performed their duties for a week in turn. 2 
Chron. xxxi. 17. The business of the porters was 
to open and shut the gates of the temple ; to attend 
them during the day, that no person or thing 
should pass to defile the Sanctuary 5 and to keep 
watch and guard about the temple, during the 
night. Though this employment was humble, yet 
David said, cc I would rather be a door-keeper in 
(at) the house of God, than to dwell in (within) 
the tents of wickedness (the wicked). 55 A good 
view of the courses of the Levites, and of their 
duties and labors, respecting the temple and its 
service, may be seen in 1 Chron. xxiii. 

4. The courses of the musicians are set forth in 
1 Chron. xxv. Each course had a leader, called 
the chief musician, which name we find in the 
titles of many of the Psalms, showing that they 
were written for the Temple service. This clearly 
appears from 1 Chron. xvi. 7, where is written, — 
" David delivered first this psalm, to thank the 
Lord, into the hand of Asaph and his brethren. 55 
Compare with Ps. cv. 1-15, and 1 Chron. xxv. 1, 
2, 6. Part of the Levites sung with their voices, 
and part played on instruments, standing in a row 
at the east end of the Court of the Priests. Ordi- 



128 SACRED PERSONS OF THE TEMPLE. 

narily the service of praise was performed twice in 
the day, at the morning and evening sacrifice. In 
the tabernacle Moses only employed trumpets, but 
David introduced various instruments into the 
service of the temple. Of the Psalms, however, 
and the musical instruments belonging, and not 
belonging, to the temple service, we shall speak 
more fully hereafter. 

5. In order to support the great body of the 
priests and Levites, and enable them to devote 
themselves to the service of the Lord, 48 cities, 
with fields, pastures, and gardens, were assigned 
them for their residence ; 13 of which belonged to 
the priests, and the rest to the Levites. Numb. 
xxxv. Beside this, their subsistence was provided 
for by the tythes of corn, fruit, cattle, &c, which 
were paid to them by the people. When they 
were actually employed in the service of the tem- 
ple, they subsisted out of the daily offerings made 
there, and out of the provisions stored for this pur- 
pose in the buildings connected with the temple. 

6. There are frequent allusions, in the way of 
figure or metaphor, in the Old and New Testa- 
ments, to the sacred persons and rites of the 
temple. The whole Jewish people, on account 
of their religious advantages, and their being 
chosen of God, and separated from the world, are 
called " a kingdom of priests, and an holy nation." 
Exod. xix. 6. So in the New Testament, Chris- 
tians are figuratively styled priests. Peter says to 
believers, — c< Ye are a chosen generation, a royal 
priesthood, an holy nation, a peculiar people," &c. 



SACRED PERSONS OF THE TEMPLE. 129 

1 Pet. ii. 9. So the revelator says of Christ, — he 
cc hath made us kings and priests unto God and his 
Father." Rev. i. 6. And as the priest, when en- 
tering upon his ministry was washed, clothed in 
the sacred garments, sprinkled with blood, anoint- 
ed with oil, &,c. (Exod. xxix. 1 - 35 ; Levit. viii. 
1 -36) ; so Christians or believers are represented 
as being washed and clothed in the robes of righ- 
teousness ; as consecrated with the sprinkling of the 
blood of Christ, and the anointing of the spirit of 
God. So, also, they are represented as " an holy 
priesthood to offer up spiritual sacrifices," and, 
" having boldness (liberty) to enter into the ho- 
liest, by the blood of Jesus," — by a new and liv- 
ing way, which he hath consecrated for us, through 
the veil, that is to say, his flesh ; and, having an 
High Priest over the house of God, let us draw 
near with a true heart, in full assurance of faith, 
having our hearts sprinkled from an evil con- 
science, and our bodies washed with pure water." 
Heb. x. 19-22; 1 Peter ii. 5. And we are ex- 
horted to " present our bodies a living sacrifice, 
holy, acceptable unto God," &c. Rom. xii. 1. In 
accordance with this figurative style of speaking, 
the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, continu- 
ally represents Christ as a High Priest, as enter- 
ing the Holy of Holies, even heaven, and making 
a sacrifice for the sins of the world ; as sprinkling 
his own blood, and as bearing the breastplate of 
their judgment, or justification, &c. Heb. ix. com- 
pared with Exod. xxviii ; Levit. xvi. See also 
12 



130 SACRED PERSONS OF THE TEMPLE. 

Heb. ii. 14- 18 ; iv. 14 - 16 ; v. 1 - 10. And, as the 
people waited in the court, for the High Priest to 
come out after his sacrificial death, to bring them, 
or announce to them, their judgment or justifica- 
tion, so the world is represented as waiting for 
Christ, who " shall appear the second time, with- 
out sin, unto salvation. 35 Heb. ix. 27, 28, compared 
with vs. 6,7, 11, 12, 24, 25. See also Rom. xv. 
16; Phil. ii. 17; 2 Tim. iv. 6; Heb. xiii. 15, 16, 
where other allusions and illustrations may be 
found. 



Questions on Chapter XVI. 

1. 2. What is said of the High Priest ? What of him 
in later times ? What is said of his power in religious 
matters ? How long was the High Priesthood holden 
originally ? In what family was it hereditary ? What is 
said of these customs in later times? Was there ever 
more than one High Priest at a time ? Was this an abuse 
of the law ? Where is the dress of the High Priest de- 
scribed ? What was the business of the common priests ? 
How did David divide them? How long at a time did 
each class serve ? Where do you have an account of 
this ? What is said of these classes and their leaders, or 
presidents ? Did all engage in every part of the service ? 
What circumstance mentioned by Luke confirms this ? 

3. What order of sacred persons came next to the 
priests ? Where may we find an account of the manner 
of their consecration ? Where do you learn their duties, 
in the time of the Tabernacle ? What were the princi- 
pal? (The carrying the tabernacle and its vessels). How 
did David in the time of the temple divide the Levites ? 



SACRED PERSONS OF THE TEMPLE. 181 

What of the first class ? What of the second ? The third ? 
The fourth ? How were those who ministered at the 
temple divided ? Where is the record of this ? W 7 hat 
were the duties of the class of porters ? In what language 
does David allude to this ? Where can you find an ac- 
count of the duties and labors of the Levites ? 

4. 5. Where are the classes of the musicians set 
forth ? What is said of the chief musician ? Whence 
do you infer that some of the Psalms were composed for 
the temple service ? Why does the delivering this psalm 
to Asaph, lead you to this conclusion ? (.See 1 Chron. 
xxv. 1, 2, 6.) Did all the Levites play on instruments ? 
In what part of the temple were they stationed, when 
performing the service of praise ? How often was this ? 
What is said of Moses and David, respecting instruments 
for divine service ? How were the priests and Levites 
supported ? What other resources beside these cities, 
fields, &c. ? How did they subsist when employed at 
the temple ? 

6. What of metaphors drawn from sacred persons ? 
Give an example from the Old Testament ? What does 
Peter call Christians ? What language does the Re vela- 
tor use in this respect ? Is this to be understood liter- 
ally ? What particulars in the consecration of the priests 
are mentioned ? How are these applied to Christians ? 
Give the substance of the language quoted from Hebrews, 
and Peter ? What exhortation is recorded in Rom. xii. 1, 
respecting our bodies ? What do you understand by it ? 
How does the author of Hebrews speak of Christ, in ac- 
cordance with this style ? For what did the people wait 
in the courts on the day of expiation ? How is this ap- 
plied in Heb. ix. 28 ? What do you understand by judg- 
ment, in verse 27 ? How does Paul speak of the Gentiles 
in Rom. xv. 16 ? Whence is the figure drawn ? 



132 THE SYNAGOGUE. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

The Synagogue, — its Services, Officers, 
Powers, fyc. 

1. The period at which synagogues came into 
use, it is not possible to determine. About 160 
years before Christ they were very common, so 
much so, that they were to be found in almost 
every town and village of Judea. In the New 
Testament, there is frequent mention of them, as 
it appears from Acts vi. 9, where are named syna- 
gogues of the Cyrenians, Alexandrians, Cilicians, 
Asiatics, &c. ; that the Jews who resided in for- 
eign places, not only had them where they dwelt, 
but also at Jerusalem. They were buildings in 
which the people assembled to celebrate the wor- 
ship of God, with prayer, and praise, and the read- 
ing and expounding of the Scriptures ; and there- 
fore, exactly answered to our churches, or " meet- 
ing-houses. " The word synagogue, signifies, 
strictly, a meeting, or congregation, but soon came 
to be applied to the building, in precisely the same 
way that Church (ecclesia), passed into this use, 
though originally it meant the people, or the con- 
gregation, and is so used in the New Testament. 

2. To build a synagogue, was regarded as a 
deed of great piety, and as peculiarly acceptable to 



ITS SERVICES, OFFICERS, POWERS. 133 

God. It was certainly acceptable to the Jews, and 
whoever did this, rendered himself very popular 
among them, as appears from the case of the cen- 
turion in Luke vii. 4, 5. " He loveth our nation, 
and hath built us a synagogue," — hence they be- 
sought Jesus to heal his servant, saying, " he is 
worthy." In consequence of this state of things, 
synagogues were often multiplied beyond the 
wants of the people. As an example, the Jews 
say, that there were 480 of them in Jerusalem 
alone ! This is doubtless an exaggeration, but it is 
enough to show, that the number must have been 
very great. It was a rule, that a synagogue 
should not be established in any place, unless 
there were at least 10 persons there ; for it was a 
Jewish saying, that, " the Divine Majesty will not 
dwell among less than ten " ; and he is represented 
as turning away in anger from a smaller number 
than this. But Jesus taught a different doctrine 
in Matt, xviii. 19, 20, which should be to us a 
source of comfort and joy. 

3. The form of the synagogue is uncertain. 
Some say, and it seems most probable from the 
peculiar reverence of the Jews for the temple, that 
they were built in imitation of that holy house of 
God. The congregation occupied the body of the 
house, facing towards the ark. In the back part 
of the building was deposited the chest, or ark, so 
called, made after the model of the true one, in 
which was kept the copy of the law, used in the 
service. Near to this was a table, on which the 
12* 



134 THE SYNAGOGUE. 

book or roll was spread for reading. A few seats 
were placed behind this table, and near to the ark, 
and were considered the most honorable, being 
generally occupied by the elders. These are " the 
chief seats in the synagogues," which the Phari- 
sees sought after to gratify their self-righteous 
pride, and for which Christ rebukes them. Matt, 
xxiii. 6. It is probable that James refers to this, in 
chap. ii. 3. The women did not, and do not at 
this day, sit among the men, but in a gallery by 
themselves. 

4. Every synagogue had its officers, to manage 
its general concerns, and direct its religious servi- 
ces. The entire management of affairs was com- 
mitted to the care of a council of elders, one of 
whom, perhaps, was styled Archisunagogos, or 
Ruler of the Synagogue, whose business it was to 
appoint the readers, and invite speakers. Mark v. 
22, 35-33; Luke xiii. 14. It appears from Mark 
v. 22, and Acts xiii. 15, that there were sometimes 
several known by this title. These persons were 
generally somewhat advanced in years, and of ac- 
knowledged learning and piety. They were called 
sages, or wise men, and were judges in some 
cases, probably in those which were tried in the 
synagogue; as it appears, that petty courts were 
sometimes holden there. (Clarke on James ii. 2, 
on the authority of Vitringa.) To these St. Paul 
is supposed to refer, in 1 Cor. vi, 5. " Is there 

not a wise man among you that shall be 

able to judge between his brethren ?" The Jews, 



ITS SERVICES, OFFICERS, POWERS. 135 

under the Romans, were governed by their own 
laws and customs ; and Paul, therefore, reproves 
the Christians, for going to law before heathen 
judges (vs. 1, 6), because, being considered a Jew- 
ish sect, they might have decided their own differ- 
ences. 

5. Next to the Ruler of the synagogue, was the 
person whose duty it was to offer up prayers for 
the whole congregation. Hence, he was called the 
angel of the synagogue, or its messenger, because, 
he carried, as it were, their petitions to God. 
Borrowing from this, the Revelator calls the minis- 
ters of the churches of Asia their angels, as " the 
angel of the church of Ephesus." Rev. ii. iii. 
Whether the person mentioned Luke iv. 20, as the 
minister, was the ruler of the synagogue, or the 
angel, or an officer distinct from both, it is not 
easy to determine. 

6. The services of the synagogue, on the Sab- 
bath, were, 1. A prayer by the angel, with an 
ascription of glory to God. 2. The reading of the 
portion of the Law, assigned to the day. 3. A 
chant of praise to the Most High. 4. The reading 
of the appointed portion of the prophets. 5. An 
address, or exhortation to the people, from the 
ruler of the synagogue, the angel, or any person 
who might voluntarily present himself, or be in- 
vited. 6. Another prayer ; and the exercises of 
the meeting were concluded with an audible Amen 
from the whole congregation. It appears, that 
Christ was in the habit of teaching in the syna- 



136 THE SYNAGOGUE. 

gogues, for Luke tells us, that, when he went to 
Nazareth, " as his custom was, he went into the 
synagogue on the Sabbath day, and stood up to 
read." Luke iv. 15, 16, compared with Isa. lxi. 
1,2. On this occasion, it seems, that he read the 
portion of the prophets, appointed for that day ; 
and immediately followed it with an address, or 
discourse, vs. 17-19, 21. It should be noticed, 
that, when Jesus read, he " stood up, 55 — this was 
the practice out of respect for the word of God. 
But before he began to preach, he "sat down " ; 
because it was the custom of the Jewish teachers 
to sit, when they delivered their instructions, while 
their scholars stood before them. Hence Christ 
sat, when he delivered the sermon on the mount. 
Matt. v. 1. This, however, was not a universal 
practice, as appears from Acts xiii. 16. In Acts 
xiii. 14-16, we have an account of Paul's preach- 
ing in the Jewish synagogue, at Antioch, in Pisidia, 
and, indeed, his entire discourse, vs. 17-41. "Af- 
ter the reading of the law and the prophets, the 
rulers of the synagogue sent unto them, saying, 
Ye men and brethren, if ye have any word of ex- 
hortation for the people, say on." This invitation 
seems to have been a civility extended to stran- 
gers. 

7. It was observed, that the elders managed the 
government of the synagogue ; and, in this respect, 
they had power to punish those who violated its 
discipline, or were guilty of heresy or crime. Ex- 
communication was the principal punishment, and 



ITS SERVICES, OFFICERS, POWERS. 137 

was much dreaded. Hence, the enemies of Jesus 
" agreed, that if any man did confess that he was 
the Christ, he should be put out of the synagogue," 
or excommunicated, — and accordingly, they " cast 
out" in this way the blind man, who persisted in 
believing Jesus to be of God. John ix. 22, 34. 
Through fear of the Pharisees in this respect, 
many who believed on Christ, dared not confess 
him openly, " lest they should be put out of the 
synagogue ; for they loved the praise of men, more 
than the praise of God." John xii. 42, 43. Let us 
beware of this sin, and confess, and advocate what 
we believe to be the truth, regardless of the praise 
of men ; and honor it with righteous lives, that we 
may have praise of God. It appears, also, from 
Matt. x. 17, that the rulers of the synagogues had 
power to inflict the punishment of scourging. For 
more respecting excommunication and scourging, 
see the chapter on Punishments. 



Questions on Chapter XVII. 

1 . 2. When were synagogues first established ? At 
what period were they very common ? What appears 
from the New Testament respecting them? For what 
purposes were synagogues erected ? What do they re- 
semble among Christians ? What is the literal meaning of 
synagogue ? What is the literal meaning of church ? Is 
it ever so used in the New Testament ? What is said of 



138 THE SYNAGOGUE. 

building a synagogue ? Give an example of this. What 
was the result of this ? How many synagogues do the 
Jews say were in Jerusalem ? Is this probably correct ? 
How many persons were required for a synagogue ? Why 
could not a less number make a congregation ? What is 
the language of Christ in Matt, xviii. 19, 20 ? What 
should we draw from this ? 

3. 4. 5. What was the probable form of the synagogue ? 
Why ? What part of the building was occupied by the 
congregation ? Where was the ark placed ? What was 
this ark? What was kept in it? What other piece of 
furniture is mentioned, — and for what used? Where 
were the elders seated ? What have you to say of these 
seats ? In what Epistle is this probably referred to ? 
What is said of the women ? Who were the council of 
elders ? What of the ruler of the synagogue, and his 
duty. Did more than one person at a time ever have this 
title ? What further is said of these persons ? Did they 
ever act as judges ? Where does Paul probably allude to 
them, — and what is the substance of his language? 
Why did he reprove the Christians at Corinth, for going 
to law before Pagan judges ? What officer was next to 
the ruler of the synagogue ? Why so called ? What is 
the literal signification of angel ? Where is this name 
borrowed, and applied to Christian ministers ? 

6. 7. What was the introductory service of the syna- 
gogue ? What came next ? What followed this ? Then 
what ? What followed the reading of the prophets ? By 
whom was this ? How were the services concluded ? 
What was Christ's custom? On what occasion do you 
have an example ? What did Christ read here ? Can 
you repeat the passage ? What followed ? Why did 
Jesus stand up when he read ? Why did he sit when he 
taught ? Was this a universal practice ? How do you 



ITS SERVICES, OFFICERS, POWERS. 139 

know ? What other example of preaching in the syna- 
gogue is mentioned ? What is the substance of the pas- 
sage quoted ? What is said of this invitation ? What 
were the powers of the council of elders, touching the 
discipline of the synagogue ? What of excommunica- 
tion ? What agreement did the enemies of Jesus make 
among themselves ? Can you give an example of this 
casting out ? What was the effect of this fear of excom- 
munication upon many ? What is said of their love of 
praise ? What is our duty in this respect ? What other 
punishment was probably inflicted by the synagogue ? 
How does Christ speak of this ? 



140 HEBREW POETRY. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Hebrew Poetry. 

1. Hebrew Poetry is not distinguished by- 
measure or rhyme, or any of the characteristics of 
Latin, Greek, or English verse. Many writers 
have attempted to point out several marks, or pe- 
culiar characteristics, by which it may be always 
known ; but there seems to be only one clearly es- 
tablished, — that which is termed parallelism. 

2. Parallelism is a certain resemblance, or rela- 
tionship, between the members of two or more 
verses. This correspondence is sometimes of 
words, sometimes of thoughts or sentiments, and 
sometimes of facts ; and is so constructed, that 
the words or facts of one verse or line, answer to 
the words or facts of another ; and this correspon- 
dence is of several kinds, three of which we shall 
notice, — the Gradational, Antithetic^ and Synony- 
mous. 

3. Parallel Lines Gradational. In this species 
of parallelism, each clause, or verse, rises above 
the preceding, or corresponding verse, in force or 
power ; and sometimes the scale is a descending 
one, in regard to the value of the things mention- 
ed. This kind of parallelism is more frequent 
than any other, and abounds in the Psalms and in 



HEBREW POETRY. 141 

the Prophecies of Isaiah. An example is found in 
the first Psalm. 

" Blessed is the man who walketh not in the counsel 
of the ungodly, 
Nor standelh in the way of sinners, 
Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful." 

Here the ascending scale is distinctly marked, 
each verse rising in strength and significancy, and 
preserving a perfect correspondence of terms. 
Walk, in the first line, which implies only casual 
intercourse, is answered in the second, by stand, 
which is expressive of greater familiarity ; and 
to this, answers sit, in the third line, which is 
a grade still higher, and marks a permanent com- 
panionship. So counsel, way, and seat. And so, 
also, ungodly, the negatively wicked, rises into 
sinners, the positively wicked ; and, in the third 
verse, becomes the scornful, or scoffers at all 
good. See also Psalm xxi. 1, 2; Isa. lv. 6, 7; 
and especially Psalm xxiv. 3, 4, where the grada- 
tional parallel is equally marked. 

4, Parallel Lines Antithetic or Antagonistic. 
This species of parallelism consists in an opposi- 
tion of sentiments, or facts, the first verse being 
contrasted with the second. Sometimes this anti- 
thesis, or opposition, is only of the general senti- 
ment expressed ; at other times, it is very exact, 
word answering to word, singular to singular, &c. 
Several entire chapters of the Book of Proverbs, 
are, written in this manner, especially x.-xv. 
13 



142 HEBREW POETRY. 

" A wise son maketh a glad father, — 
But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. 
Treasures of wickedness profit nothing, — 
But righteousness delivereth from death." 

5. Examples may be found, also, in Psalms and 
in the Prophets. Sometimes, however, the paral- 
lelism is so constructed, that the first and third, 
and the second and fourth verses, are opposed to 
each other. Isaiah furnishes an instance in chap- 
ter liv. 10. It may be well to say, that the transla- 
tion is made more literal than the common ver- 
sion, for the purpose of marking more distinctly the 
parallelism. 

" For the mountains shall be removed ; 
And the hills shall be overthrown ; 
But my kindness for thee shall not be removed ; 
And the covenant of my peace shall not be over- 
thrown." 

6. Parallel Lines Synonymous, This species is 
the reverse of the preceding, and consists in an 
agreement of sentiment between the verses. In 
other words, this kind of parallelism repeats the 
same thought, truth, or fact ; the second or third 
line, as the case may be, answering to the first, in 
the expression of the same idea, or truth, but in 
different words. This is, perhaps, the most im- 
portant of the three named, and serves to explain 
many passages, whose meaning would otherwise 
be in dispute. Some few examples of this follow, 
taken from Job v. 



HEBREW POETRY. 143 

" God doeth great things, and unsearchable} 
Marvellous things without number. 

Who giveth rain upon the earth, 
And sendeth water upon the fields. 

The froward meet with darkness in the daytime, 
And grope in the noonday as in the night. 

God maketh sore, and bindeth up; 

He woundeth, and his hands make whole." 

7. Sometimes there are three parallel lines, each 
one expressing the same thought, or truth. Exam- 
ples follow, from Job iii. 4-9. 

" Let that day be darkness, — 
Let not God regard it from above ; 
Neither let the light shine upon it. 

Let darkness and the shadow of death stain it; 

Let a cloud dwell upon it ; 

Let the blackness of the day terrify it." 

8. The parallelism is sometimes so constructed, 
that the third line answers in agreement to the 
first, and the fourth to the second, — which should 
be carefully observed in determining the meaning 
of the corresponding verses. Isa. xxx. 16. 

"And ye said, Nay, but on horses will we flee, — 
Therefore shall ye put to flight ; 
And on swift coursers will we ride, — 
Therefore shall they be swift that pursue you." 

9. We have thus given the most important di- 
visions of the parallelism, embracing those fea- 



144 HEBREW POETRY- 

tures, which are most useful to the general inter- 
pretation of the poetical portions of the Scriptures. 
There are several other species, which are, in fact, 
only branches of these, and need not, therefore, be 
particularly specified. We shall now make an ap- 
plication of these particulars, to some few exam- 
ples, for the purpose of showing how much is 
thereby added to the beauty and significancy of 
many passages of the sacred writings. In the two 
examples immediately following, we shall arrange 
the parallel lines according to our idiom ; in the 
first example, placing together the first and third, 
which answer to each other, and the second and 
fourth ; and in the second example, the first and 
fourth, and second and third together. Ps. xxiv. 
3, 4 5 Matt. vii. 6. 

" Who shall ascend into the hill of the Lord? 
He that hath clean hands. 
Who shall stand in his holy place ? 
He that hath a pure heart." 

" Give not that which is holy unto dogs, 
Lest they turn again and rend you ; 
Neither cast ye your pearls before swine, 
Lest they trample them under their feet." 

10. The synonymous parallelism, which repeats 
the same idea, or fact, in different words, serves to 
explain many important passages. Habakkuk 
(i. 12.), speaking of the Chaldeans, whom God em- 
ployed to punish the Jews, says, — 



HEBREW POETRY. 145 

"O Lord, thou hast ordained them for judgment, 
O mighty God, thou hast established them for 
correction." 

Here correction answers to judgment, and explains 
what is meant by judgment, its nature, and object. 
So Isaiah xxxiv. 8. 

" For it is the day of the Lord's vengeance, 
The year of recompense for the controversy of Zion." 

The day of the Lord's vengeance is the year of 
recompense, when God would punish the Jews. 
And so in Zeph. i. 14-18, "the great day of the 
Lord," and the " day of wrath," is shown to be 
the day when destruction would be brought upon 
"the fenced cities," "the high towers," and the 
men who had "sinned against the Lord." 

11. The following is from Ps. xvi. 10; Acts ii. 
27, and it is at once seen, that hell, in the first line, 
is answered by see corruption, in the second, 
showing that it means simply the grave. 

" Thou wilt not leave my soul in hell ; 
Neither wilt thou suffer thine Holy One to see cor- 
ruption." 

So in the two following examples, from Prov. v. 5 ; 
vii. 27, the parallelism shows, that death and hell 
are the same, inasmuch as both lines express pre- 
cisely the same sentiment in accordance with the 
rule named. The lewd woman is mentioned. 
13* 



146 HEBREW POETRY. 

" Her feet go down to death, 
Her steps take hold on hell." 

" Her house is the way to hell, 
Going down to the chambers of death." 

Here, in the first example, hell is made to answer 
to, or is made equivalent to death ; and in the sec- 
ond, death to hell. In the example which follows, 
there are three parallel lines, and the same idea is 
thrice repeated ; and the figurative expressions, 
" sorrows of death," in the first line, and "pains 
of hell, 35 in the second, are explained by " trouble 
and sorrow, 55 in the third. Ps. cxvi. 3. 

" The sorrows of death compassed me; 
The pains of hell gat hold on me ; 
I found trouble and sorrow." 



Questions on Chapter XVIII. 

1. 2. 3. What have you to say of the measure and rhyme 
of Hebrew Poetry ? What is the distinguishing character- 
istic ? What do you understand by parallelism ? Is this 
a correspondence of words only ? Of how many kinds is 
this parallelism ? What have you to say of the gradation- 
al parallelism ? Where is this species mostly found ? What 
passage is given from the first Psalm? (The scholar may 
turn to the examples in the Bible, when reading and explain- 
ing.) Explain the first example of gradation (xoalk). Give 
the second in the same manner (counsel). Explain the 
third example (ungodly). Give the example from Psalm 
xxiv. 3, 4, and explain it in reference to the parallelism. 



HEBREW POETRY. 147 

4-7. What is the next species of parallelism ? What 
is said of parallel lines antithetic, or antagonistic ? Is the 
opposition general, or particular? In what book, more 
especially, are examples of this to be found ? What is the 
example given ? Explain the passage in accordance with 
this parallelism. Is the parallelism always between the 
immediately successive lines? Tarn to the example in 
Isaiah, and explain it. What lines are here opposed? 
What is the character of parallel lines synonymous? 
What is said of the repetition of the sentiment ? Is this 
species important, — and why ? Give the examples from 
Job v. and explain them. Can you point out any more 
examples from this chapter? {The scholar should be re- 
quired to select and explain exam-pies from any of the poeti- 
cal portions of the Bible, that it may be seen whether he fully 
understands the subject.) Are there ever more than two 
lines parallel ? Give the examples from Job iii. and such 
remarks as you please, in illustration. 

8. 9. 10. Does the first line always answer to the sec- 
ond ? Why should this be carefully observed ? Give the 
example from Isaiah xxx. 16, and explain it. Are there 
other kinds of parallelism ? Are they important? Apply 
the foregoing facts to Psalm xxiv. 3,4. in the way of ex- 
planation. {The scholar should be required to read the ex- 
amples as they stand, — and then according to the English 
idiom, — that is, the lines which answer to each other, to- 
gether.) Give the example from Matt. vii. 6, and explain 
it. What is said of the synonymous parallelism, in re- 
gard to the interpretation of Scripture ? Give the exam- 
ple from Habakkuk i. 12. How do you understand the 
word judgment, in this passage, and why? Give Isaiah 
xxxiv. 8. What do you understand by the day of the 
Lord's vengeance f W T hy do you think so ? Turn to 



148 HEBREW POETRY. 

Zeph. i. 14 - 16, and read it. How does the parallelism 
bear upon the interpretation of this ? 

11. Give the example from Acts ii. 27. Whence is 
this quoted ? What is the meaning of hell, here ? How 
does the parallelism show this? What is the example 
from Prov. v. 5 ? What words are equivalent here ? The 
example from Prov. vii. 27. The meaning of hell, and 
why? To what species of parallelism do these examples 
belong ? How does Psalm cxvi. 3, read ? To what class 
does this belong ? What does David mean, by saying the 
"pains of hell" gat hold on him? Does he mean the 
same thing by "sorrows of death" ? Can you give any 
examples of your own selection? 



MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 149 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Music, Musical Instruments. — Writing, and 
Writing Materials. 

1. Music, vocal and instrumental, is mentioned 
as being common at a very early period. Laban 
told Jacob, that, had he known of his departure, he 
would have sent him away "with mirth, and with 
songs, with tabret, and with harp." Gen. xxxi. 27. 
Isaiah mentions " the harp and the viol, the tabret 
and the pipe," as being at the feasts, v. 12. On all 
festal occasions, music seems to have been intro- 
duced, as the coronation of kings, victories, tri- 
umphal return of their generals, &c. Dancing 
appears also to have made a part of the exercises, 
at such times, as may be seen from the case of 
Jephthah, in the Old Testament (Judg. xi. 34) ; 
and of the Prodigal Son in the New. Luke xv. 25. 

2. In the temple service, in order to secure reg- 
ularity and more perfect execution, David divided 
the 4,000 Levites into 24 classes, whose duty it was 
to sing the appointed psalms, and accompany them 
with music. 1 Chron. xxv. This arrangement was 
continued until the destruction of Jerusalem and 
the temple. The musical instruments of the Jews, 
may, perhaps, be divided into stringed instruments, 
wind instruments, and those which were beaten 
with the hands. 



150 WRITING, AND WRITING MATERIALS. 

3. Stringed Instruments. Of these, there were 
two. 1. The harp, which had from three to ten 
strings, is mentioned, with the organ, as the earli- 
est of musical instruments. Gen. iv. 21. In the 
time of David, the strings seem to have been play- 
ed with the hand ; but afterwards, a kind of bow 
appears to have been used. 2. The psaltery, or 
viol (Ps. v. 12), was in the shape of a triangle, and 
had sometimes ten, and sometimes twelve strings. 
It was played with the fingers. 

4. Wind Instruments. Six of these are men- 
tioned in the Scriptures. 1. The organ was very 
unlike the instrument known by that name among 
us. It was composed of seven pipes, or reeds, of 
unequal length, which were passed back and for- 
ward, under the mouth, and blown into, — in the 
same manner as practised by our strolling musi- 
cians. 2. The horn was made of the horns of 
oxen and rams, with the small end cut off and fitted 
to the mouth, and was used chiefly in war. 3. The 
trumpet was made of metal, and was used princi- 
pally in the temple service, though it was some- 
times blown on other extraordinary occasions. 4. 
Beside these, there were two instruments called 
pipes, supposed to have been like the flute and 
hautboy ; and an instrument made of reeds, term- 
ed a dulcimer. 

5. Instruments played by beating, were, — 1. 
The cymbal, consisting of two flat, or slightly con- 
vex plates of brass, one in each hand, which were 
struck together, producing a ringing sound, as an 



MUSIC. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 151 

accompaniment to other instruments. It is gener- 
ally a part of every military band in our day. 2. 
The tabret, or timbrel, was a circular hoop of 
wood, or brass, over which a piece of skin was 
tightly drawn, and hung round with little bells. It 
was held in the left hand, and beaten with the 
right. The eastern women still dance to the sound 
of this instrument ; and it is a favorite with the 
negroes of the South. 3. The sistrum, or cornet 
(2 Sam. vi. 5.), was an oval or oblong rod of iron ; 
or a rod with the ends bent at right angles with 
the body of it, and these again curved back parallel 
with the body. This was furnished with several 
movable rings, and when struck with another rod 
of iron, gave forth the desired sound. 

6. Writing, and writing materials. The 
art of writing is very ancient, and its invention or 
origin is lost in the distance of time. The law 
given to Moses was written on tables of stone ;c by 
the finger of God." Exod. xxxi. 18. Sculpture or 
rude engraving on stone and wood, seems to have 
been among the first efforts of written language. 
That wood was employed may be seen from 
Numb. xvii. 2, 8; Ezekiel xxxvii. 16. "More- 
over, thou son of man, take thee one stick, and 
write upon it, For Judah, and for the children of 
Israel his companion : then take another stick, and 
write upon it," &c. The writing-table on which 
Zacharias wrote the name of John Baptist (Luke 
i. 63), was a table covered on the top with wax, 
and written upon with a stylus or pen of iron, or 



152 WRITING, AND WRITING MATERIALS. 

gold, or silver, made sharp at one end for writing 
on the wax, and blunt or flat at the other, for 
smoothing the wax in case of a mistake. From 
this instrument came the figurative expressions, 
" a good style of writing," " a coarse style," "a 
classical style," &c. 

7. The papyrus or Egyptian paper seems also 
to have been used by the Jews, as appears from 
Isaiah xix. 6, 7, where the " paper reeds" un- 
doubtedly refer to the reed papyrus, of which 
paper was made. Leaves of trees, especially those 
of the palm species, were also used, at a very early 
period ; and, it is supposed by some learned men, 
that the confusion in some passages of the Old 
Testament, and the transposition of others, is 
owing to the transposition of these leaves, or to 
their being wrongly put together. In the second 
Epistle to Timothy (iv. 13.), mention is made of 
parchment, which was a preparation of skins. In 
writing upon these last named substances, a pen of 
■reeds, and quills, would be necessary, and of 
course ink. Mention is made of these, and also of 
books in Psalm xlv. 1 ; Jer. xxxvi. IS. Another 
kind of writing is spoken of in Numb. v. 23, which 
was probably like that of the Copts of Egypt at the 
present day. The material written upon, was a 
sort of parchment, and the ink a colored liquid, 
which was easily washed off with a wet sponge 
into a cup or bowl, which, being drank, the person 
might be said literally to drink the curses which 
had been written, v. 24. 



MUSTC. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 153 

8. Books were written on papyrus, or parch- 
ment, &,c, several pieces being united, so as to 
make one very long sheet, the columns running 
breadthwise, up and down the sheet. This was 
then rolled round a stick for convenience, or, if 
the sheet was of great length, round two sticks or 
cylinders, beginning at each end, and rolling in- 
ward, until they met in the middle. When the 
Saviour went into the synagogue (Luke iv.), there 
was delivered him the book, " And when he had 
opened (unrolled) the book," &c. And when he 
had finished reading, " he closed (rolled up) the 
book," &c. So in Ezra vi. 1, 2, the library build- 
ing is called "the house of rolls," or books, from 
this custom of rolling up the manuscripts. And in 
Ezekiel ii. 10, mention is made of a roll, or book 
which was written on both sides. It was usual to 
write only on one side. Our word volume is deriv- 
ed from this form of ancient books, being from the 
Latin volumen, "a thing rolled up," which is the 
literal derivative meaning of volume. 

9. In this custom of rolling their books or manu- 
scripts in the form of scrolls, we discover the ori- 
gin of some of those figures of speech, which give 
to the language of Scripture such a bold and start- 
ling aspect. "All the hosts of heaven shall be dis- 
solved, and the heavens shall be rolled together as 
a scroll." Isa. xxxiv. 4. "And the heavens de- 
parted as a scroll when it is rolled together." Rev. 
vi, 14. 

14 



154 WRITING. AND WRITING MATERIALS. 



Questions on Chapter XIX. 

1. 2. Was music known at an early period ? What 
instance is given from Scripture ? What instruments are 
mentioned by Isaiah ? What is said of music on festal 
occasions ? What of dancing ? What examples are men- 
tioned ? Can you give any others ? What is said of 
David's arrangement of the Levites in relation to the tem- 
ple service ? What was their duty ? In what Scripture 
do you find an account of this ? How long did this ar- 
rangement continue ? How may the musical instruments 
of the Jews be divided ? 

3.4.5. How were the stringed instruments divided? 
What is said of the harp ? How was it played in the 
time of David ? How afterwards ? Describe the psaltery 
or viol. How was it played ? How many wind instru- 
ments were there ? Describe the organ. What is said of 
the horn i On what occasion was it chiefly used ? Give 
what is said of the trumpet. What of the pipes ? What 
other instrument is mentioned ? What was the number 
of instruments played by beating? What is said of the 
cymbal? Is it used now ? What was the tabret, or tim- 
brel ? How was it played ? Is it used at this day, — and 
by whom ? Describe the sistrum, or cornet. 

6. 7, What is said of the art of writing ? How was 
the law given to Moses on Sinai written ? What seem to 
have been the first efforts of written language ? Was 
wood ever used ? What example from Scripture ? De- 
scribe the writing-table. Where is this mentioned ? What 
was the stylus ? What figures of speech are drawn from 
this instrument? What is said of leaves of trees? How 
does the use of these probably account for the transposi- 
tion of some passages? Was the papyrus used by the 



MUSIC. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS^ &C. 155 

Jews ? Where and under what name is it mentioned ? 
What material for writing is mentioned by Paul ? In 
what Epistle ? What kind of pens were used in writing 
upon papyrus, parchment, &c. ? Where are these men- 
tioned ? What other method of writing is described ? 
How do you explain the person's drinking the curses 
written ? 

8. 9. What is said of the manner in which ancient 
books were written ? How were these long sheets dis- 
posed of? On what occasion did the Saviour use a book 
of this kind ? What is the literal meaning of the words 
rendered opened and closed in this account ? What is 
meant by " the house of rolls" in Ezra vi. 1, 2 ? Why 
was it so called ? What is the substance of Ezek. ii. 10 ? 
Why is the circumstance of the roll being written on both 
sides mentioned ? Whence is derived our word volume ? 
What is its literal meaning ? What is said of scriptural 
figures drawn from the roll form of ancient books ? What 
is the example from Isaiah ? From Revelations ? 



156 MODES OF RECKONING 

CHAPTER XX. 

Modes of Reckoning and Dividing Time. 

1. Hours. The Jews divided the time between 
the rising and setting of the sun, into 12 equal 
parts, which were called hours. John xi. 9. These 
hours, at different seasons of the year, were of 
course of different lengths, being in winter consid- 
erably shorter than in summer. They were num- 
bered from the rising of the sun, and not, as with 
us, from the middle of the day. Hence the hour of 
noon, which we call the twelfth hour, or twelve of 
the clock, was called by the Jews the sixth hour. 
So in Matt. xx. 3, 5, 6, 9 ; the third hour denotes 
nine o'clock in the morning of our time ; the sixth 
hour denotes twelve ; the ninths three in the after- 
noon ; and the eleventh, five in the afternoon. 
This correspondence is not, however, exact at all 
seasons of the year, owing to the different length 
of the days, and of course of the hours, the number 
being the same both in long and short days. The 
most ready method of harmonizing the Jewish 
hours with our own, is to add six to the hour 
given, which will show the hour by our own time. 
For example, if the hour in Scripture is the third, 
add six, and we have nine o'clock, — if it be the 
ninth hour, add six, and we have three o'clock in 
the afternoon, — and so in all other cases. 



AND DIVIDING TIME. 157 

2. The Jews appear to have had three stated 
hours of prayer, which are severally named in the 
book of Acts. The third hour (ii. 15); the sixth 
hour (x. 9) ; and the ninth hour (iii. 1). David 
seems to allude to this custom in Psalm lv. 17. 
The Jews scarcely ever ate, or drank, before the 
hour of prayer in the morning ; and hence the 
propriety and force of Peter's defence on the day 
of Pentecost. Acts ii. 15. The word hour is fre- 
quently employed in Scripture to denote a particu- 
lar occasion, or an indefinite period, of longer or 
shorter duration, as, " His hour was come" (John 
xiii. 1) ; "The hour cometh 55 (John iv. 21, 23) ; 
" This is your hour, and the power of darkness." 
Luke xxii. 53. 

3. Days. The Jews reckoned their days from 
evening to morning, according to the order set 
forth in the first chapter of Genesis, in the account 
of the creation, — fc The evening and the morning 
were the first day." Hence the Sabbath began on 
the evening of Friday, or at the setting of the 
sun ; and ended on the evening of Saturday at the 
same hour. This illustrates Mark i. 32. " And at 
even, when the sun did set, they brought unto him 
all that were diseased," &c. They thought it not 
lawful to heal on the Sabbath, and therefore, 
waited until even, or sunset, at which time the 
Sabbath ended. There were two evenings, or the 
evening consisted of two parts, the first, beginning 
just after the sixth hour, or twelve o'clock ; and 
the second, at the going down of the sun. The 

14* 



158 MODES OF RECKONING 

Iamb of the passover, and of the daily evening 
sacrifice, was required to be killed between these 
evenings. Exod. xii. 6 ; xxix. 38, 39, — " in the 
evening," and " at even," being literally " be- 
tween the evenings." In earlier times the Jews 
divided the night into three watches, called the 
first, the middle, and the morning watch, varying 
in length, according to the season of the year. 
The anxious looking of the watchman for morning 
is alluded to in Psalm cxxx. 6. In the time of the 
Romans, the night was divided into four watches, 
of three hours each. Mark xiii. 35. The first, or 
evening, was from six to nine ; the second, or 
midnight, from nine to twelve ; the third, or cock- 
crowing, from twelve to three ; and the fourth, or 
morning, from three to six. 

4. The word day, is also employed to denote 
any indefinite period of time, as will appear from 
the following. " He seeth that his day is coming." 
Psalm xxxvii. 13. This is spoken of the wicked, 
and points to the time of his punishment and over- 
throw. " Abraham rejoiced to see my day," that 
is, the period of my coming. John viii. 56. " The 
night is far spent ; the day is at hand" (Rom. xiii. 
12) ; or the period of heathenish darkness is nearly 
over, and the time of gospel light, and saving 
knowledge, is at hand. So, cc Now is the accepted 
time ; now is the day of salvation." 2 Cor. vi. 2. 
And again, " God hath appointed a day, in the 
which he will judge (rule) the world in righteous- 
ness, by that man whom he hath ordained," &c. 



AND DIVIDING TIME. 159 

Acts xvii. 30, 31. The word "day," here means 
the gospel day, or dispensation, in which God, 
through Christ, will rule the world in righteous- 
ness, or by the influences of gospel truth. "It 
shall be more tolerable for the land of Sodom and 
Gomorrah in the day of judgment, than for that 
city. 55 Matt. x. 14, 15. "The day of judgment of 
Sodom and Gomorrah, 55 says A. Clarke, " was the 
time in which the Lord destroyed them by fire and 
brimstone. 55 So of cc the great day of the Lord, 55 
u the day of wrath," &c. in Zeph. i. meaning the 
time of destruction to the people mentioned. 

5. Weeks. The Jewish week consisted of seven 
days, having no name but the first day of the 
week, the second day, third, &c. — the seventh 
being called the Sabbath. The day before the Sab- 
bath, or Friday with us, because employed in 
making ready for the Sabbath, was called in later 
times the preparation* Mark xv. 42. Beside the 
week of days, the law appointed a week of years, 
making every seventh year Sabbatical, or a year 
of rest from cultivation to the whole land, as the 
seventh day was a day of rest from labor to the 
whole people. In addition to this, there were 
weeks composed of seven of those last periods, or 
seven times seven years, and then, on the fiftieth 
year, came the Jubilee, which was celebrated with 
great joy and festivity. 

6. Months. The Jews measured their months 
as did all other ancient nations, by the revolutions 
of the moon, and they were of course, therefore, 



160 MODES OF RECKONING 

lunar months. They consisted of 29 and SO days 
alternately. Originally they had no names, as ap- 
pears from the account of the flood, but were call- 
ed first, second, &c. Afterwards they were called 
by names, but whence derived is not well known. 

*7. The Year was made up of twelve of these 
lunar months, with such additions in reference to 
the solar year, as were necessary to keep the festi- 
vals in their proper places. There were strictly 
two years, the civil and the ecclesiastical. The 
civil year began in September, from a tradition 
that the world was created at that time. By this 
year the Jews computed their jubilees, dated con- 
tracts, reigns, births, &c. The ecclesiastical year 
commenced in March, because at that time they 
departed from Egypt. Exod. xii. 2. From this 
year were computed the feasts, the visions of the 
prophets, &c. The year was generally divided 
into six seasons, each of two months. Seed-time, 
comprising October and November ; winter, em- 
bracing December and January ; the cold-season, 
occupying February and March ; the harvest, in 
April and May ; summer, comprising June and 
July ; and the hot-season, August and September. 

8. In counting time the Jews were accustomed 
to reckon any part of a period for the whole. 
Thus, a child was said to be circumcised when 
eight days old, though this was required by law to 
be done on the eighth day. Levit. xii. 3. Hence it 
is written, that John the Baptist was circumcised 
on the eighth day (Luke i. 59), and Jesus " when 



AND DIVIDING TIME. 161 

eight days were accomplished." Luke ii. 21. If a 
child were born on the last hour of the day, it was 
counted as a whole day in this respect. And, in 
some countries of the East, a child born in the last 
week of December, is counted as one year old on 
the first day of January, the one week, though so 
small a part, being reckoned as a whole year. 
This fact will serve to explain the account of the 
resurrection. In Matt. xvi. 21, Jesus showed that 
he should be raised on " the third day " ; but in 
Mark viii. 31, it is " after three days," — both 
which expressions are made equivalent by this 
custom. Accordingly, after this manner of reck- 
oning, Jesus was crucified on Friday, about the 
sixth hour, or noon, and the remainder of that day 
was counted as one day. Saturday, during all 
which, he was in the sepulchre, made the second, 
or two days. The third day began at sunset, on 
Saturday, at which time the Saviour was still un- 
der the power of death, and continued thus until 
about sunrise, when he rose from the dead, — and 
this was also counted as a whole day. And, thus 
according to the Jewish mode of reckoning, he was 
three days in the grave. See a similar example in 
2 Chron. x. 5 3 12. 



Questions on Chapter XX. 

1. 2. How did the Jews divide the day? Were these 
hours always of the same length ? Why were they not ? 
At what part of the day did they begin to number the 



162 MODES OF RECKONING 

hours? What was the hour of noon or twelve o'clock 
called? What o'clock was the third hour? The ninth ? 
The eleventh ? What is the readiest method of harmon- 
izing the Jewish time with ours ? Give some examples. 
How many stated hours of prayer had the Jews? At 
what hours were they ? What hours of our time ? What 
is said about eating and drinking before the hour of morn- 
ing prayer ? How does this explain Peter's language on 
the day of Pentecost, in reply to the charge, that the dis- 
ciples were drunken ? What is said of the use of the 
word hour in Scripture ? Examples. 

3.4. At what time did the Jews begin their day? 
What day was the Jewish Sabbath ? Did they consider 
it lawful to heal on that day ? Can you give an instance ? 
Luke xiii. 14. Why did the people wait till after sunset 
before they brought their sick to be healed ? When did 
the Sabbath end? What is said of evenings? What evi- 
dence is there named ? How did the Jews divide the 
night in earlier times? What is the passage, — Psalm 
cxxx. 6 ? How many watches in the time of the Roman 
power ? Give the hours of each. How is the word day 
used in Scripture ? Give an example. What did Christ 
mean by Abraham's rejoicing to see his day ? What is 
meant by night and day in Rom. xiii. 12 ? How do you 
explain, " Now is the accepted time ; now is the day of 
salvation ,; ? What is the meaning of Acts xvii. 30, 31 ? 
How do you understand " the day of judgment" of Sodom 
and Gomorrah in Matt. x. 14, 15 ? Explain " the great 
day of the Lord," " the day of wrath," &c. in Zeph. i. 

5-8. What is said of the Jewish week? What was 
the day before the Sabbath called ? What was the week 
of years? What other week was there? And what fol- 
lowed it ? What of the Jewish months ? How many 
days had they ? What of their names ? What of the 



AND DIVIDING TIME. 163 

year ? What were the two years recognised by the Jews ? 
When did the civil year begin, — and why? What was 
computed by this ? When did the ecclesiastical year be- 
gin, and why? What was reckoned by this? Into how 
many seasons was the year divided ? In which of our 
months did the seed-time come ? The winter ? The 
harvest ? The cold season ? The hot season ? The sum- 
mer? In counting time, how did the Jews reckon parts 
of times, as days and years? Give an example. Suppos- 
ing a child were born on the last hour of the day ? Is 
there an eastern custom similar to this, — and what? Can 
you explain by this custom the fact, that Jesus rose on the 
third day, and yet was said to have been dead three days ? 



164 JEWISH AND ROMAN JUDICATURE. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

Jewish and Roman Judicature. — Areopagus. 

1. Jewish Judicature. In the early ages of the 
world, the gate of the town or city was not only the 
place of trade and business, but also the seat of jus- 
tice, or the court, where complaints were made, 
trials held, and sentence passed by the elders of the 
people, who, in those primitive times, were gener- 
ally the judges. See Gen. xxiii. 10, 18 ; xxxiv. 24. 
2 Kings vii. 1, 17, 18. Also, Ruth iv. 1 - 10, where 
Boaz declares his intention of marriage in the gate 
of Bethlehem. The palace of Constantinople, or 
the Ottoman court, is to this day called the Porte, 
in allusion to this custom of administering justice 
at the gate of the city. And one of the gates of the 
Moorish Palace, called the Alhambra, is still known 
as the cc Gate of Judgment." This practice will ren- 
der intelligible such passages as these, — The wick- 
ed "shall be crushed in the gate" (Job v. 4), that 
is, condemned or sentenced. " The elders have 
ceased from the gate" (Lam. v. 14); or, justice is no 
longer done. " Rob not the poor, — nor oppress 
the afflicted in the gate." Prov. xxii. 22. " Her 
husband is known in the gates, when he sitteth 
among the elders of the land." Prov. xxxi. 23. He 
is known as an upright judge. " Hate the evil, and 



AREOPAGUS. 165 

love the good, and establish judgment in the gate."- 
Amos v. 15. " They turn aside the poor in the gate 
from his right." v. 12. 

2. There was also a court among the Jews, com- 
posed of twenty -three judges, who are said to have 
tried cases of murder, and other capital offences, and 
to have inflicted the punishment of strangling, be- 
heading, &c. Superior to this, was the famous 
council of seventy-two elders, or judges, and called 
the sanhedrin. This was the supreme court, and 
received appeals from all lower tribunals, its own 
decision being final, previous to the subjection of 
the Jews to the Romans. The Saviour alludes to 
these two courts in Matt. v. 21, 22 ; the former un- 
der the name of the judgment, and the latter of 
council. In the time of the Roman power, neither 
of these courts could inflict the punishment of 
death, the Jews being deprived of that power, 
which resided in the governor alone. Hence, when 
Christ was tried by the sanhedrin, and judged wor- 
thy of death (Matt, xxvii. 57, 59, 66), they brought 
him before Pilate, that he might sentence him 
(xxviii. 1, 2), for, said they, e: It is not lawful for us 
to put any man to death." John xviii. 31. The 
stoning of Stephen was the act of a mob, and not 
the result of a judicial proceeding. Acts vii. 57 — 59. 

3. In matters of common suit, or controversy, it 
appears that the person aggrieved, or the plaintiff, 
either himself sent the proper officer to seize the 
offender and bring him before the judge, or made 
his complaint to the judge, who sent the officer to 

15 



166 JEWISH AND ROMAN JUDICATURE. 

do this. The complaint was then presented, the 
accused was heard in his defence (John vii. 51), 
and the case decided according to the wisdom of 
the judge. In the Old Testament, there is no men- 
tion of advocates, or lawyers, every one pleading 
his own case ; but in the New Testament times 
they appear, and the practice of employing them 
was probably borrowed from the Romans. Of this 
class was Tertullus, who was employed by the 
Jews to plead against Paul. Acts xxiv. 1-8. See 
also Deut. xxv. 1. &c. ; Matt. v. 25, where Christ 
warns his hearers to avoid lawsuits, and endeav- 
our to settle their disputes privately. John seems 
to allude to these advocates in his first Epistle ii. 1, 
where he says, " If any man sin, we have an advo- 
cate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous/' 
4. Roman Judicature. In former times, and 
among many people of more modern times, it was 
the practice to seek confession of his crime from 
the accused, by torture. This was strictly forbid- 
den in reference to Roman citizens, to bind or tor- 
ture whom was unlawful, and was severely pun- 
ished in any magistrate who was guilty of it. Ac- 
cordingly, when the centurion had given orders to 
have Paul bound, and " examined by scourging, 
that he might know wherefore the Jews so cried 
against him," and Paul had declared himself a Ro- 
man citizen, he was greatly " afraid because he had 
bound him," for he knew there was a law against 
such proceedings, and he might be made to suffer 
for it. Acts xxii. 24-29. Scourging was regarded 



AREOPAGUS. 167 

with especial abhorrence, as appears from passages 
in Cicero's Orations, and in other ancient produc- 
tions. Hence, when Paul and Silas were beaten 
and cast into prison at Philippi, and the magis- 
trates, in consequence of the earthquake, sent an 
officer to let them go, Paul replied, " They have 
beaten us openly, uncondemned, being Romans, 
and have cast us into prison ; and now do they 
thrust us out privily? nay, verily; but let them come 
themselves and fetch us out. 1 ' When the magis- 
trates heard this, they were alarmed, fearing the 
wrath of the Romans, and went and apologized, 
and besought them to leave the city. Acts xvi. 
19-40. 

5. Another privilege enjoyed by the Roman cit- 
izen was, the right, — in case he thought himself 
wronged by the provincial magistrates, or discover- 
ed any disposition to do him injustice, — to appeal 
to the people, or, in the time of the empire, to the 
emperor. When such appeal was made, the pow- 
er of the governor or magistrate was instantly at an 
end, and he was obliged to send the prisoner to 
Rome, that he might lay his case before Csesar, or 
the emperor. Of this privilege, the apostle Paul, 
who was by birth a Roman citizen, availed himself, 
when he found Felix was inclined to send him to 
Jerusalem for trial, though the Jews could not 
prove the things with which they had charged him. 
He knew that Jesus, though innocent, had been 
put to death at Jerusalem, and he could not expect^ 
surrounded, as he would be, by enemies thirsting 



168 JEWISH AND ROMAN JUDICATURE. 

for his blood, and tried by a governor wishing to 
please them, to escape a similar fate. According- 
ly, when he found how matters were turning, he 
claimed the right of a Roman, and said, " I appeal 
unto Ccesar," — and Felix could only reply, "Unto 
Caesar shalt thou go. 53 Acts xxv. 1 -12. 

6. The Roman method of securing or fettering 
criminals, and persons accused of high crimes, was 
thus, — One end of a chain, prepared for the pur- 
pose, was fastened to the right arm of the prisoner, 
and the other end to the left arm of a soldier, who 
thus accompanied him everywhere, as his keeper 
and guard. In this manner was Paul fettered, as 
is supposed, when he defended himself before Fes- 
tus and king Agrippa. And, in allusion to this, he 
uttered one of the most pathetic and striking ap- 
peals in the whole field of eloquence. When 
Agrippa said, " Almost thou persuadest me to be a 
Christian," — "I would to God," replied the apos- 
tle, " that not only thou, but also all that hear me 
this day, were both almost and altogether such as 
I am, except these bonds" (chains). Acts xxvi. 
28, 29. To be chained thus, was, of course, regard- 
ed as a disgrace, and hence the apostle approbates 
Onesiphorus, who did not forsake him when in 
this situation. " The Lord give mercy to the house 
of Onesiphorus, for he oft refreshed me, and ivas 
not ashamed of my chain, but, when he was in 
Rome, he sought me out very diligently, and found 
me." 2 Tim. i. 16-18. Sometimes the prisoner 
was bound to two soldiers, having a chain on each 



AREOPAGUS. 169 

hand. " The same night, Peter was sleeping be- 
tween two soldiers, bound with two chains." Acts 
xii. 6. Perhaps Paul was once so chained. Acts 
xxi. 33. 

7. The Areopagus. Though this court was at 
Athens, it may be briefly noticed here without im- 
propriety. It was one of the most celebrated courts 
of ancient times, distinguished alike for the up- 
rightness and integrity of its judges, and for the 
wisdom of its decisions. One department of its 
duties, was the supervision of religious matters, — 
and its authority was necessary to the introduction 
of any new god, the erection of a new temple, or 
any important change in the form or substance 
of divine worship. Before this court Paul was 
brought, charged with setting forth new gods, "be- 
cause he preached Jesus and the resurrection." 
Acts xvii. 16-34. This was an offence punishable 
with death, as in the case of Socrates, who was 
accused of this among other things ; and the adroit 
and happy manner in which Paul avoided the force 
of this law, is seen in verse 23, and his success may 
be inferred from the fact, that he was dismissed 
from the court unharmed. The power of his elo- 
quence, on this occasion, may be gathered not only 
from the recorded language, but also from the cir- 
cumstance, that one of the judges, among others, 
was converted, and became his follower, and a dis- 
ciple of the truth, v. 34. 

15* 



170 JEWISH AND ROMAN JUDICATURE 



Questions on Chapter XXI. 

1. 2. 3. What is said of the gate of the city, touching 
the subject of this chapter ? Who were the judges in these 
days ? What example is mentioned ? W r hat is said of the 
palace or court of Constantinople ? What of the Alham- 
bra ? How do these facts illustrate the passage, " The 
elders have ceased from the gate" ? What do you under- 
stand by " The wicked shall be crushed in the gate" ? 
Can you give other examples of allusions to the custom in. 
question ? What is said of the court of 23 judges ? What 
other court is named ? What is said of its power and au- 
thority ? In what language does Christ speak of these ? 
What of these courts in the time of the Romans ? Who 
only could pass sentence of death ? What example can 
you give, showing these things ? What is said of the 
death of Stephen ? What were the proceedings in com- 
mon suits ? What after the accused was brought before 
the judge ? What of advocates, or lawyers, in the Old 
Testament ? Are they mentioned in the New Testament, 
and from whom was borrowed the practice of employing 
them ? Give an example. What does the Saviour say, 
touching lawsuits? In what language does John allude 
to the employment of lawyers ? 

4. 5. 6. What is said of torture, employed to induce 
confession of guilt ? Was this allowed in reference to Ro- 
man citizens ? What is the example, illustrative of this ? 
Where recorded ? What of scourging, particularly ? What 
other example is mentioned ? Why were the magistrates 
of Philippi so alarmed ? Where is this recorded ? What 



AREOPAGUS. 171 

other privilege was enjoyed by Roman citizens? What 
was the result of such an appeal ? On what occasion did 
Paul avail himself of this right ? Why was he probably 
unwilling to go to Jerusalem for trial ? Where is the ac- 
count of this ? How were accused persons and criminals 
secured ? When was Paul so fettered ? How does he 
allude to it in his defence, — give his words ? Where do 
you find this ? Why does Paul praise Onesiphorus ? 
What does he say of him ? Was the prisoner ever con- 
fined to more than one soldier ? 

7. Where was the court of Areopagus ? For what was 
it distinguished? What were some of its duties and pow- 
ers ? For what was Paul brought before this court ? How 
was the offence, with which he was charged, punishable ? 
What noted person suffered for this, among other things ? 
How did Paul avoid the force of this law ? What reason 
have you to suppose he was successful ? What other cir- 
cumstance is mentioned as proof of this ? 



172 PUNISHMENTS MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

Punishments mentioned in Scripture. 

1. The punishments mentioned in the Scrip- 
tures may very properly be divided into two clas- 
ses, — those which were capital, in which death in 
some form was inflicted ; and those which were 
not capital, and which embraced the penalties 
affixed to crimes of a lower degree. Of these, we 
shall consider the latter class first. 

2. Punishments not capital. There were sev- 
eral of these, of which the most important were 
the following : (1.) Restitution, which required 
that all property stolen, or obtained by fraud, 
should be restored at a two-fold, and sometimes 
even at a five-fold rate. This also included any 
damage suffered by one in consequence of the 
negligence of another person. Levit. xxiv. 18 ; 
Exod. xxi. 23, 24, 36 ; xxii. 6. Under this head 
also may be reckoned fines (Deut. xxii. 19, 29) ; 
and perhaps the sin and trespass offerings. (2.) 
Imprisonment, and confinement in the stocks. Many 
examples of this are found in the Old and New 
Testament. Jer. xxix. 26 ; xx. 2. The Apostles 
were frequently thrown into prison for preaching 
the Gospel, as appears from the book of Acts. Paul 
and Silas were served in this manner at Philippi, 



PUNISHMENTS MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 173 

being " thrust into the inner prison, and their feet 
made fast in the stocks." Acts xvi. 24. The prison- 
ers were generally at the mercy of the jailer, who 
had power to use them as he chose, being required 
only to keep them safely, and to produce them 
when called for. The sufferings of the victim, in 
consequence of this, may be gathered from the in- 
treaty of Jeremiah, xxxvii. 16-20. The jailer, 
however, was subjected to severe punishments if 
he allowed the prisoner, either through careless- 
ness, or design, to escape. This punishment was 
not unfrequently death. The keepers of Peter, 
who was miraculously delivered, were put to 
death by Herod. Acts xii. 19. And hence the 
conduct of the jailer who had the care of Paul and 
Silas, xvi. 27. (3.) The nature of Retaliation 
may be seen from Exod. xxi. 23-35, and Levit. 
xxiv. 19-22. It was a punishment very seldom 
inflicted, being mostly settled by compromise. In 
Matt. v. 38-42, Christ rebukes the principle, and 
teaches a better doctrine. 

3. (4.) Scourging, This was very common among 
the Jews in all ages. It was a law that the stripes 
should not exceed 40. Deut. xxv. 1-3. To pre- 
vent the violation of this law, or to avoid exceed- 
ing the legal number, a scourge was made ex- 
pressly for the purpose, consisting of three lashes 
or thongs ; and consequently at every blow the 
criminal received 3 lashes, and 13 blows being 
inflicted, brought the punishment to 39 lashes, 
when the executioner stayed his hand. Hence, Paul 



174 PUNISHMENTS MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 

says, "Of the Jews five times received I forty stripes 
save one." 2 Cor. xi. 24, This passage illustrates 
both the frequency of the punishment, and the 
manner of its infliction. Among the Romans there 
was no law limiting the number of stripes, and 
hence probably, the Saviour was scourged so cru- 
elly, that he was unable from exhaustion, to bear 
his cross. Luke xxiii. 26. It was unlawful, how- 
ever, to scourge Roman citizens, as we have seen 
in the preceding chapter ; and as appears from 
Acts xvi. 22, 23, 37; xxii. 25-29. (5.) Excom- 
munication was both a civil and ecclesiastical pun- 
ishment. There are no traces of it previous to the 
captivity, and it was probably introduced by Ezra 
or his successors. Among the later Jews, there 
were three degrees of it. The first was when a 
person was cast out of the synagogue, in which 
case he was forbidden all intercourse with those 
around him, even with his own family, for the 
space of 30 days. This is frequently mentioned in 
the New Testament. Luke vi. 22 ; John ix. 22 ; 
xvi. 2, &.c. The case of the blind man is full of in- 
terest and instruction. John ix. The second was 
pronounced with a curse ; and to such as were 
under it, it was not lawful to furnish the necessa- 
ries of life. The third was still more severe, cut- 
ting off the criminal from all intercourse with the 
people, and all hope of reconciliation with the 
church, and giving him over to the judgment of 
God, which, it was supposed, would soon overtake 
him. Hence it was called maranatha 3 or "the 



PUNISHMENTS MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 175 

Lord cometh," that is, to inflict the judgment. 1 
Cor. xvi. 22. 

4. Capital Punishments. Beside the execu- 
tions of the blood-avenger, there were but two cap- 
ital punishments, that were strictly Jewish, — 
stoning and the sword. (1.) Stoning was the 
punishment most common, where the crime was 
pronounced worthy of death. The witnesses were 
required to throw the first stones, and then all 
present joined in the work, till the unhappy vic- 
tim was overwhelmed and crushed. Deut. xvii. 7 ; 
John viii. 7. This is generally intended, when the 
term " putting to death" is employed. Levit. xx. 
10, compared with John viii. 5; Exod. xxxi. 14, 
with Numb. xv. 35, 36. (2.) The sword, or 
death by the sword, was inflicted in any way that 
suited the convenience of the executioner. With 
this we are not to confound beheading, or decapita- 
tion, which was a different punishment, and was 
borrowed from other nations. It was adopted by 
the Herodian family, as appears from the case of 
John Baptist. Mark vi. 27. Sometimes indignities 
were put upon the dead bodies ; among which, 
was hanging them on trees, or on gibbets. The 
Canaanitish kings were first slain, and then hang- 
ed. Josh. x. 26. Those who were thus hanged on 
trees, or gibbets, were regarded as accursed of 
God, or the subjects of his especial wrath ; and 
hence the language of Paul respecting Christ. 
Gal. iii. 13. In addition to these capital punish- 
ments, others are mentioned, which were borrow- 



176 PUNISHMENTS MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 

ed from the surrounding nations : (1.) Cutting, or 
sawing asunder. Dan. ii. 5; Heb. xi. 37. (2.) 
Exposing to wild beasts. Dan. vi. 7, 12, 16-24 ; 1 
Cor. xv. 32. (3.) Precipitation, or casting head- 
long from a rock, or any high place. 2 Kings ix. 
30, 33. The Jews attempted to destroy Christ in 
this way, Luke iv. 29. 

5. John is supposed to allude to those offences, 
which were, and those which were not punishable 
with death, in his first Epistle, v. 16, 17. " If any 
man see his brother sin a sin which is not unto 
death ; he shall ask, and he shall give him life for 
them that sin not unto death. There is a sin unto 
death : I do not say that he shall pray for it." 
The meaning of the passage in this view seems to 
be this : There are some offences which are pun- 
ishable by the magistrates, always with death, ad- 
mitting of no pardon, under any circumstances. If 
thy brother has committed an offence of this sort, I 
do not say that thou shalt pray for him, or make 
petition for his life ; for in such a case it would be 
in vain. But there are other sins or offences that 
are not unto death, or are not invariably and cer- 
tainly punished with death (though this is the 
penalty affixed), but which admit of substitutes for 
death, as imprisonment, banishment, &c. In these 
cases thou shalt pray, make petition for thy broth- 
er's life, that it may be spared. Perhaps the 
apostle designed to encourage sympathy for the 
unfortunate, and to teach us to feel for their dis- 
tresses, and never abandon them while there is any 



PUNISHMENTS MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 177 

hope left, — at any rate, this is a lesson which we 
may well learn from his language. 

6. There is yet another method of inflicting 
capital punishment, which, though not Jewish, but 
Roman, should not be passed over ; we speak of 
crucifixion, or death by the cross. The cross was 
composed of two beams, the shorter, on which the 
arms were stretched, crossing the longer near the 
top at right angles, like the letter T ; — or other- 
wise, the beams being of equal length, and cross- 
ing each other in the middle like the letter X. 
Death by crucifixion is affirmed to be the most ex- 
cruciating, and terrible, which the cruelty of man 
has ever devised. Among the Romans it was re- 
served for slaves, robbers, assassins, and the lowest 
and vilest criminals. Hence the odium attached to 
it, which was very like that associated with the 
gallows among us. It was on this account, that 
" Christ crucified, was to the Jews a stumbling- 
block, and to the Greeks foolishness." 1 Cor. i. 
23. They could not conceive of any thing more 
foolish and extravagant, than the idea of becoming 
the followers of a malefactor, and that of the low- 
est sort, of one who had been crucified ; and to 
the Jews, was it especially absurd, since such as 
were hanged on a tree or cross were counted by 
them as cursed of God. Deut. xxi. 23 ; Gal. iii, 13. 
Hence Paul magnifies the great love of the 
Saviour, who, for our sakes, " endured the cross, 
despising the shame." Heb. xii. 2 ; Phil. ii. 7, 8. 
And he shows his own devotedness, and courage 
16 



178 PUNISHMENTS MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 

when he says, " I determined not to know any 
thing among you, save Jesus Christ, and him cru- 
cified." 1 Cor. ii. 2. Out of the views which have 
been set forth, grew the use of the word cross, in a 
figurative sense, to represent the difficulties and 
sufferings, and sacrifices, to which those would be 
exposed, who engaged in any unpopular cause. 
Christ says, that whosoever would be his disciple, 
must take up his cross, and follow him (Matt, 
xvi. 24) ; that is, must be ready and willing to en- 
counter all the persecutions to which he would be 
exposed ; to make all the sacrifices of conveni- 
ence, and comfort, and feeling ; and to endure all 
the toils, and sufferings, which would fall to the lot 
of those who espoused his cause at that period. 



Questions on Chapter XXII. 

1. 2. 3. How may the punishments of Scripture be di- 
vided? What punishments are named which are not 
capital ? What is said of restitution ? What other in- 
juries or damages were included under this head ? What 
further penalties may be reckoned here ? What is said of 
the punishment of imprisonment and stocks? Can you 
give an example from the New Testament? What is 
said of the power of the jailer? What of Jeremiah, illus- 
trative of this ? What have you to say of the jailer, 
touching the escape of his prisoners ? Can you give ex- 
amples ? Why did the jailer attempt to kill himself in 
the case of Paul and Silas ? What was the character of 
the punishment of retaliation f Where, and in what Ian- 



PUNISHMENTS MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 179 

guage does the Saviour rebuke this principle ? Do you 
understand this language literally ? How then ? What 
of scourging ? How many stripes were allowed by the 
Jewish law ? What method was taken to avoid exceed- 
ing this? What language of Paul illustrates this ? What 
is said of scourging among the Romans ? What of this 
punishment touching Roman citizens ? What is said of 
excommunication? How many degrees were there? 
What have you to say of the first ? Can you give the 
account, in substance, of the blind man's excommunica- 
tion ? What is said of the second degree ? Of the third ? 
What was this called? What is the meaning of the 
term ? 

4. 5. What is said of the capital punishments belong- 
ing strictly to the Jews? What is said of stoning ? Who 
threw the first stones? And what followed? What of 
" stoning" in connexion with the phrase " putting to 
death" ? What of the punishment by the sword? Is this 
what is meant by beheading ? Can you give an example 
of beheading from the New Testament ? What is said of 
indignities offered to the dead bodies of criminals ? What 
example is named ? What is said of those who were thus 
hanged on trees, or on the gibbet or cross? What is the 
language of Paul, drawn from this, in Galatians iii. 13? 
What other capital punishments are named ? In what 
language does Paul speak of being exposed to wild beasts ? 
What is said of the Saviour in reference to precipitation ? 
What is the passage from John v. 16, respecting the sins 
or offences which were unto death, &c. What is the 
probable meaning of this passage ? What lesson ought 
we to learn from it ? 

6. What other capital punishment is named ? De- 
scribe the cross. What is said of death by crucifixion ? 
On whom did the Romans inflict it? Why was " Christ 



180 PUNISHMENTS MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 

crucified," a stumbling-block to the Jews, and foolishness 
to the Greeks ? In what language does Paul magnify the 
love of Christ? How does he show his own courage and 
integrity ? What is the figurative use of the word cross ? 
What example is given in the words of Jesus? What 
does the Saviour mean ? Was the act of crucifixion in 
regard to Christ, performed by Jews or Romans ? How 
then can the Jews be said to have crucified Christ ? 



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